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(33, 1407, '# Chapter Notes: Health and Exercise\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and grammatical principles discussed in the chapter \"Health and Exercise,\" focusing on modern factors affecting weight and well-being.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Ways with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Vocabulary Definitions and Usage\r\n\r\nThe following words are matched with their definitions. Example sentences demonstrate their proper use in context.\r\n\r\n* **nevertheless**: (adv.) in spite of that; notwithstanding.\r\n  * *Sentence*: The experiment yielded unusual results; **nevertheless**, the findings were conclusive.\r\n* **urge**: (n.) a strong desire or impulse.\r\n  * *Sentence*: He resisted the **urge** to check his phone during the lecture.\r\n* **determination**: (n.) the quality of being firm in purpose; resoluteness.\r\n  * *Sentence*: Her **determination** to succeed was evident in her relentless work ethic.\r\n* **highlight**: (v.) to attract attention to or emphasize something important.\r\n  * *Sentence*: The report will **highlight** the critical need for environmental reform.\r\n* **bickering**: (n.) arguing about petty and trivial matters.\r\n  * *Sentence*: The constant **bickering** between the committee members slowed down progress.\r\n* **deprivation**: (n.) the lack or denial of something considered to be a necessity.\r\n  * *Sentence*: Chronic sleep **deprivation** can have serious long-term health consequences.\r\n* **persist**: (v.) to continue firmly or obstinately in a course of action in spite of difficulty.\r\n  * *Sentence*: If the symptoms **persist** for more than a few days, you should consult a doctor.\r\n* **flab**: (n.) soft, loose flesh on a person\'s body.\r\n  * *Sentence*: A consistent exercise routine helps to reduce body **flab**.\r\n* **boost**: (v.) to help or encourage something to increase or improve.\r\n  * *Sentence*: A healthy diet can **boost** the immune system.\r\n* **restriction**: (n.) a limiting condition or measure.\r\n  * *Sentence*: The new law places a **restriction** on the use of single-use plastics.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Noun Suffixes: \'-ion\' and \'-ness\'\r\n\r\nBelow are expanded lists of nouns ending with the suffixes \'-ion\' and \'-ness\'.\r\n\r\n**Nouns ending in \'-ion\'**:\r\n* action, collection, completion, creation, decision, discussion, education, election, erosion, evaluation, expansion, expression, formation, impression, infection, instruction, invention, location, narration, negotiation, operation, pollution, prevention, promotion, reaction, relation, solution, translation, vision.\r\n\r\n**Nouns ending in \'-ness\'**:\r\n* awareness, boldness, brightness, business, calmness, cleanliness, consciousness, darkness, effectiveness, emptiness, forgiveness, happiness, illness, kindness, madness, neatness, openness, politeness, sadness, sharpness, sickness, softness, thickness, usefulness, weakness, willingness.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### A. True, False or Not Given\r\n\r\na. During the holidays people eat and drink more than usual. **True**\r\nb. Getting too little exercise and eating too much is the reason why people put on weight. **True**\r\nc. David Allison’s research involved studying rats under laboratory conditions. **False**\r\nd. You may need to go shopping for clothes if you come down with a cold. **True**\r\ne. Adenovirus-36 (AD-36) decreases the percentage of fat in the fat cells. **False**\r\nf. Vaccination against infections could be used in the future to prevent obesity. **True**\r\ng. People under severe stress can experience breathing difficulties. **Not Given**\r\nh. A study indicates that mice that have never been on a diet choose fatty food, when given a choice between high-calorie or low-calorie food products. **False**\r\ni. Rajita Sinha has been studying the connection between brain activity and behaviour. **False**\r\nj. Specific hormones regulate our appetite. **True**\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. In what sense are the holidays a time of excess? When can a person gain weight?**\r\nHolidays are considered a time of excess because people\'s typical dietary routines are disrupted, often leading to increased consumption of food and drink. A person can gain weight during this time due to a simple caloric surplus: their energy intake from eating more exceeds their energy expenditure, especially if physical activity levels also decrease.\r\n\r\n**b. According to David Allison, which factor contributes to excess obesity?**\r\nAccording to David Allison, while overeating and lack of exercise are factors, they are not the sole contributors to obesity. He suggests that other, less obvious factors, such as viral infections (like adenovirus-36), sleep deprivation, and environmental chemicals, also play a significant role.\r\n\r\n**c. What, according to Dhurandhar, can be the way of preventing fatness?**\r\nBased on his research linking adenovirus-36 to obesity, Dhurandhar proposes that vaccination against such infections could be a future method for preventing some cases of fatness.\r\n\r\n**d. What is the relationship between chill and obesity? How can saying ‘om’ help reduce fatness?**\r\nThe relationship between being \"chill\" (i.e., managing stress) and obesity is linked to stress-induced eating. High stress can lead to cravings for high-calorie foods. Meditative practices, such as chanting ‘om’, can help induce a state of relaxation, thereby reducing stress and giving an individual better control over these food urges.\r\n\r\n**e. Why is it necessary to be careful while buying plastic packaged fatty foods?**\r\nIt is necessary to be careful with plastic-packaged foods, particularly fatty ones, because certain plastics contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals (like BPA and phthalates). These chemicals can leach into the food and are believed to interfere with the body\'s hormonal systems, potentially affecting metabolism and weight regulation.\r\n\r\n**f. Why does Nelson suggest avoiding blue wavelengths of light at night?**\r\nNelson suggests avoiding blue wavelengths of light (emitted by screens and some artificial lighting) at night because this light can disrupt the body\'s circadian rhythm. This disruption can interfere with metabolic processes and hormonal regulation, potentially leading to weight gain.\r\n\r\n**g. How does breathing polluted air affect one’s fatness?**\r\nBreathing polluted air can contribute to fatness by triggering chronic inflammation in the body. This inflammation can disrupt the body\'s normal metabolic functions and its ability to efficiently burn energy, which may lead to weight gain over time.\r\n\r\n**h. What is the link between sleep and weight?**\r\nThere is a direct physiological link between sleep and weight. Sleep deprivation disrupts the balance of key appetite-regulating hormones, increasing levels of ghrelin (the \"hunger hormone\") and decreasing levels of leptin (the \"satiety hormone\"). This hormonal imbalance leads to increased appetite and can contribute to weight gain.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. What do you do to keep yourself fit? What food do you avoid and why?\r\n\r\nMaintaining personal fitness requires a disciplined and holistic approach that integrates regular physical activity with a mindful diet. To keep myself fit, I adhere to a consistent exercise regimen that includes a mix of cardiovascular activities, such as running and cycling, and strength training. This combination helps improve cardiovascular health, build lean muscle, and boost overall metabolism.\r\n\r\nEqually important is my dietary discipline. I consciously avoid foods that offer poor nutritional value and can undermine my fitness goals. This includes:\r\n* **Junk Foods and Processed Foods**: These are typically high in unhealthy fats, sodium, and artificial additives.\r\n* **Foods High in Refined Sugar**: Items like pastries, sugary drinks, and candy cause rapid spikes in blood sugar, leading to energy crashes and promoting fat storage.\r\n* **Foods with Trans Fats**: Processed meats and foods made with hydrogenated oils are detrimental to cardiovascular health.\r\n\r\nI avoid these foods because they are calorie-dense but nutrient-poor. Their consumption can lead to weight gain, fatigue, and an increased risk of chronic diseases, directly counteracting the benefits of physical exercise. A healthy diet, focused on whole foods, is essential for providing the energy and nutrients needed to live an active and healthy life.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. \"Healthy citizens are the greatest asset of a country.\" What can a state do to keep its citizens healthy?\r\n\r\nThe statement that \"healthy citizens are the greatest asset of a country\" is fundamentally true, as public health is inextricably linked to economic productivity, social stability, and national progress. A state can implement a multi-faceted strategy to safeguard and enhance the health of its citizens.\r\n\r\n1.  **Ensure Access to Quality Healthcare**: The government should work towards providing universal and affordable access to healthcare services. This includes funding public hospitals and clinics, ensuring a sufficient supply of medical professionals, and making essential medicines and treatments accessible to all, regardless of their economic status.\r\n2.  **Promote Public Health Education**: A state must invest in comprehensive public health campaigns that educate citizens about nutrition, hygiene, and the risks associated with lifestyle choices like smoking and excessive alcohol consumption. This awareness empowers individuals to make informed decisions about their health.\r\n3.  **Implement Strong Preventative Measures**: Prevention is more effective and economical than cure. The government should enforce robust public health policies, including nationwide vaccination programs against communicable diseases, regulations for food and water safety, and initiatives to control pollution.\r\n4.  **Foster a Healthy Environment**: A state has a responsibility to create an environment conducive to health. This includes developing public infrastructure like parks and recreational facilities to encourage physical activity, implementing anti-pollution laws to ensure clean air and water, and promoting mental well-being through community support programs.\r\n\r\nBy investing in these core areas, a state can build a healthier, more resilient, and more prosperous society.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Writing\r\n\r\n### a. The Benefits of Yoga\r\n\r\nYoga, an ancient practice originating in India, is a holistic discipline that harmonizes the mind, body, and spirit. Far more than a simple form of exercise, it is a comprehensive approach to well-being that offers profound benefits for both physical and mental health. When practiced regularly, yoga serves as a powerful tool for navigating the stresses of modern life and cultivating a state of inner peace.\r\n\r\nPhysically, the benefits of yoga are extensive. The practice of various postures, or *asanas*, improves flexibility, enhances muscle strength and tone, and promotes better posture and balance. It stimulates the circulatory and digestive systems, aiding in detoxification and improving overall bodily function. Furthermore, controlled breathing techniques, or *pranayama*, increase lung capacity and oxygenate the blood, which can lead to increased energy levels and vitality. Regular practice has been shown to be effective in managing chronic conditions such as hypertension, back pain, and arthritis.\r\n\r\nMentally and emotionally, yoga\'s impact is equally transformative. The meditative aspect of the practice helps to quiet the mind, reduce stress, and alleviate anxiety and depression. By fostering a state of mindfulness, yoga sharpens concentration and improves mental clarity. It teaches practitioners to observe their thoughts and emotions without judgment, leading to greater emotional stability and a more positive outlook on life. This connection between mind and body is the true gift of yoga, offering a path to a longer, healthier, and more balanced existence.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. How to Maintain Mental Health\r\n\r\nMaintaining mental health is as vital as maintaining physical health for overall well-being. An individual\'s mental state affects their thoughts, feelings, and actions, making it crucial to adopt habits that foster psychological resilience and a positive outlook. Here are ten practical tips for staying mentally fresh and healthy.\r\n\r\n1.  **Prioritize Sleep**: Aim for 7-9 hours of quality sleep per night, as sufficient rest is essential for cognitive function and emotional regulation.\r\n2.  **Eat a Balanced Diet**: Nutritious food fuels the brain. A diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and omega-3 fatty acids can improve mood and mental clarity.\r\n3.  **Take Regular Breaks**: Step away from work or stressful situations to recharge. Even short breaks can prevent mental fatigue and burnout.\r\n4.  **Avoid Harmful Substances**: Limit or avoid alcohol, nicotine, and illicit drugs, as they can negatively impact mental health and exacerbate underlying issues.\r\n5.  **Get Sunlight Exposure**: Sunlight boosts serotonin levels, which can improve mood. Try to spend some time outdoors each day.\r\n6.  **Develop Stress Management Techniques**: Practice mindfulness, meditation, or deep breathing exercises to manage stress effectively.\r\n7.  **Engage in Physical Activity**: Regular exercise is a powerful mood booster and has been proven to reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression.\r\n8.  **Do Something You Enjoy**: Make time for hobbies and activities that bring you joy and a sense of accomplishment.\r\n9.  **Nurture Social Connections**: Spend quality time with supportive friends and family. Strong social ties are a key buffer against mental health challenges.\r\n10. **Seek Help When Needed**: Talking to a trusted friend, family member, or mental health professional is a sign of strength, not weakness.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: Subject-Verb Agreement\r\n\r\n### B. Choose the Correct Verbs\r\n\r\na. Everyone **has** problems in their life. Countries also **have** problems, and so **does** the world. One of the greatest problems **is** the growing population. The population in some countries **is** huge.\r\nb. A number of my friends **love** riding bicycles, but neither my brother nor my sister **owns** a cycle. At 4 o’clock, either my mother or father **is** coming to pick me up in a car.\r\nc. The pair of shoes on the floor **is** mine. The shoes **were** made in China. The three thousand rupees I spent on them **was** worth it.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Correct the Sentences\r\n\r\na. *Incorrect*: Everyone of the workers receive the same benefits.\r\n   * *Correct*: Everyone of the workers **receives** the same benefits.\r\nb. *Incorrect*: There is two gerbils in my bathroom.\r\n   * *Correct*: There **are** two gerbils in my bathroom.\r\nc. *Correct*: Both of my friends live in Kathmandu.\r\nd. *Incorrect*: Scissors is used to have our hair cut.\r\n   * *Correct*: Scissors **are** used to have our hair cut.\r\ne. *Correct*: You and your friends are welcome to join us.\r\nf. *Incorrect*: Are the news on at five or six?\r\n   * *Correct*: **Is** the news on at five or six?\r\ng. *Incorrect*: The man with all his children live in the city.\r\n   * *Correct*: The man with all his children **lives** in the city.\r\nh. *Incorrect*: Mathematics are Prem\'s favourite subject, while Economics is Alina\'s favourite subject.\r\n   * *Correct*: Mathematics **is** Prem\'s favourite subject, while Economics **is** Alina\'s favourite subject.', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(34, 1408, '# Chapter Notes: Ecology and Development\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and grammatical principles presented in the chapter \"Ecology and Development,\" focusing on the work of Wangari Maathai.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Ways with words\r\n\r\n### A. Vocabulary Definitions\r\n\r\n| Word | Meaning |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| **Constituency** | An electoral district. |\r\n| **Pursue** | To follow in an effort to overtake or capture. |\r\n| **Infiltrate** | To enter or gain access to an organization or place secretly and gradually. |\r\n| **Nomadic** | Living the life of roaming; wandering. |\r\n| **Anatomy** | The art of studying the different parts of an organized body. |\r\n| **Subversive** | Seeking or intended to overthrow an established system or institution. |\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Words with Prefixes\r\n\r\nThe following words and sentences demonstrate the use of common prefixes.\r\n\r\n* **mal-** (bad, wrongful)\r\n    * **Malignancy**: Early detection of the **malignancy** is crucial for successful treatment.\r\n    * **Malware**: It is important to install software to protect your computer from **malware**.\r\n* **mis-** (wrong, incorrect)\r\n    * **Misspell**: Be careful not to **misspell** any names in the official document.\r\n    * **Mismatch**: The team was a **mismatch** for their stronger, more experienced opponents.\r\n* **un-** (not, opposite of)\r\n    * **Uncover**: The investigation is expected to **uncover** the truth.\r\n    * **Unsafe**: The building was declared **unsafe** after the earthquake.\r\n* **in-** (not, opposite of)\r\n    * **Inedible**: The meal was so poorly cooked that it was completely **inedible**.\r\n    * **Incapable**: He felt **incapable** of expressing his true feelings.\r\n* **pre-** (before)\r\n    * **Prevent**: Regular maintenance can **prevent** equipment failure.\r\n    * **Preplan**: It is wise to **preplan** your travel itinerary to avoid delays.\r\n* **il-** (not, opposite of)\r\n    * **Illogical**: Her argument was emotional but entirely **illogical**.\r\n    * **Illusion**: The oasis in the desert was merely an optical **illusion**.\r\n* **dis-** (not, opposite of)\r\n    * **Discomfort**: The patient reported feeling a slight **discomfort** in his chest.\r\n    * **Disengage**: The soldiers were ordered to **disengage** from the conflict.\r\n* **im-** (not, opposite of)\r\n    * **Immature**: His response to the criticism was surprisingly **immature**.\r\n    * **Immortal**: The hero of the epic poem was believed to be an **immortal** being.\r\n* **re-** (again)\r\n    * **Return**: Please **return** the library books by their due date.\r\n    * **Rewrite**: The editor asked the author to **rewrite** the concluding chapter.\r\n* **ir-** (not, opposite of)\r\n    * **Irremovable**: The stain on the carpet proved to be **irremovable**.\r\n    * **Irrational**: His fear of flying was completely **irrational**, but he could not overcome it.\r\n* **de-** (down, off, away from)\r\n    * **Deactivate**: You must **deactivate** your security pass upon leaving the company.\r\n    * **Defrost**: It is necessary to **defrost** the freezer at least twice a year.\r\n* **non-** (not)\r\n    * **Nonstick**: A **nonstick** pan is ideal for cooking eggs.\r\n    * **Nonverbal**: Body language is a powerful form of **nonverbal** communication.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. What did Maathai decide to do for the community?**\r\nWangari Maathai decided to address the community\'s fundamental needs by initiating a tree-planting program. This was designed not only to combat environmental degradation like deforestation and soil erosion but also to create jobs and provide resources like firewood and clean water.\r\n\r\n**b. Mention the problems faced by women in Kenya.**\r\nThe primary problems faced by women in Kenya were malnutrition, scarcity of food, inadequate clean water, lack of firewood, widespread unemployment, and the severe effects of soil erosion on their agricultural lands.\r\n\r\n**c. Why did the speaker go to the women to talk about planting trees?**\r\nMaathai approached the women specifically because they were the ones most directly affected by the environmental problems. As the primary caregivers and agricultural workers, they bore the brunt of the hardships and were therefore most concerned about the future and the well-being of their children.\r\n\r\n**d. What is the most important achievement of the movement described in the text?**\r\nThe most important achievement of the movement was the empowerment of the women involved. They became independent, acquired valuable knowledge and techniques for conservation, and began teaching one another, thereby creating a self-sustaining and powerful grassroots network.\r\n\r\n**e. Why were the foresters’ ways not helpful to the women for planting trees?**\r\nThe foresters\' methods were not helpful because their professional training led them to complicate what was a simple, practical task. Their technical, top-down approach was inaccessible and intimidating to the rural women, who ultimately succeeded using their own common sense and practical knowledge.\r\n\r\n**f. When and how did she start The Green Belt Movement?**\r\nShe officially started The Green Belt Movement on World Environment Day in 1977 by planting seven trees in Nairobi, symbolizing the beginning of a nationwide environmental campaign.\r\n\r\n**g. Why do the donors want to provide money to the women?**\r\nDonors wanted to provide money because they recognized the tangible and satisfactory results of the women\'s efforts. They saw that the movement was an effective and sustainable grassroots initiative that was successfully addressing both environmental and social problems.\r\n\r\n**h. What happened when the speaker criticized the political leadership?**\r\nWhen Wangari Maathai criticized the political leadership for corruption and poor governance, she was branded as **subversive**. The government portrayed her as a troublemaker and an enemy of the state in an attempt to discredit her and her movement.\r\n\r\n**i. Mention the agencies that supported her movement.**\r\nThe agencies that provided crucial support to her movement included:\r\n* United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)\r\n* Danish Voluntary Fund\r\n* Norwegian Agency for International Development (NORAD)\r\n* African Development Foundation\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. Is the title “Foresters without Diplomas” suitable for the essay?\r\n\r\nThe title “Foresters without Diplomas” is exceptionally suitable for this essay because it perfectly encapsulates the central theme: the triumph of practical, community-based knowledge over formal, institutionalized expertise. The essay contrasts the methods of the professionally trained foresters with those of the rural Kenyan women. The foresters, with their diplomas, approached tree-planting with a complexity that was inaccessible and unhelpful to the community. They represented a top-down approach that failed to connect with the people on the ground.\r\n\r\nIn contrast, the women, though lacking formal qualifications, became true \"foresters\" through their own ingenuity and common sense. They developed simple, effective techniques for finding seeds and nurturing seedlings, demonstrating a profound understanding of their local ecosystem. The title celebrates their achievement and validates their indigenous knowledge, powerfully arguing that effective environmental stewardship does not always require a diploma—it requires connection, commitment, and practical wisdom.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. Can a person make a difference in a society?\r\n\r\nThe idea that a single individual can make a significant difference in society is not a naive sentiment but a historical fact. While global problems can seem overwhelmingly large, history is filled with examples of individuals whose vision and determination have catalyzed profound change. One person, armed with a powerful idea and unwavering commitment, can certainly alter the course of their society.\r\n\r\nIn the context of Nepal, Dr. Sanduk Ruit stands as a powerful example. Born in a remote village in Eastern Nepal, he witnessed the devastating impact of preventable blindness, particularly from cataracts. Instead of accepting this as an insurmountable problem, he dedicated his life to developing a revolutionary, low-cost method of cataract surgery. His innovation, known as the Ruit technique, made sight-restoring surgery accessible and affordable for hundreds of thousands of impoverished people in Nepal and across the developing world. Dr. Ruit\'s work did not just restore sight; it restored dignity, independence, and economic productivity to countless individuals and their families. His story is a compelling testament to the fact that one person’s focused effort and innovative thinking can indeed make a world of difference.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### c. Essay: The Community Forest in Nepal\r\n\r\n**The Community Forestry Program in Nepal: A Green Revolution from the Grassroots**\r\n\r\nThe Community Forestry Program in Nepal stands as a globally recognized model of successful participatory environmental governance. It is a testament to the idea that entrusting local communities with the stewardship of their natural resources can simultaneously address the twin challenges of forest conservation and poverty reduction. For a nation where the majority of the population depends on agriculture, this intervention has been nothing short of a green revolution.\r\n\r\nFor decades, Nepal’s forests were centrally managed by the state, a policy that often led to widespread deforestation and degradation as local communities felt alienated from their own resources. The paradigm shifted with the introduction of community forestry, which legally empowered local user groups to manage, protect, and utilize their nearby forests. This transfer of authority has yielded remarkable ecological results. Satellite imagery and ground reports have consistently shown a significant increase in Nepal\'s forest cover over the past three decades. Communities have actively engaged in reforestation, prevented illegal logging, and managed forest resources sustainably, leading to the regeneration of vital ecosystems, the protection of biodiversity, and the conservation of soil and water resources.\r\n\r\nThe program\'s impact extends far beyond ecological restoration. The forests provide communities with essential resources like timber, firewood, and medicinal herbs, directly improving their livelihoods. Furthermore, revenue generated from the sustainable sale of forest products is often reinvested into community development projects, such as building schools, health posts, and drinking water systems. This model has not only improved local economies but has also fostered social cohesion and strengthened democratic practices at the grassroots level.\r\n\r\nDespite its success, challenges remain, particularly in ensuring the equitable distribution of benefits to women and marginalized groups. However, the Community Forestry Program in Nepal remains a powerful example of how environmental conservation and human development can go hand in hand, proving that the most effective guardians of the forest are the people who call it home.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: Transitive, Intransitive, and Linking Verbs\r\n\r\n### c. Identify the Verb and its Type\r\n\r\na. His father **looks** handsome.\r\n   * **looks**: Linking Verb\r\nb. Bhawana **drinks** milk every day.\r\n   * **drinks**: Transitive Verb\r\nc. He **became** a watchman.\r\n   * **became**: Linking Verb\r\nd. This bread **smells** good.\r\n   * **smells**: Linking Verb\r\ne. The dog **barked** loudly.\r\n   * **barked**: Intransitive Verb\r\nf. He **chased** the dog.\r\n   * **chased**: Transitive Verb\r\ng. My sister **swims** fast.\r\n   * **swims**: Intransitive Verb\r\nh. He **painted** a picture.\r\n   * **painted**: Transitive Verb\r\ni. Radhika always **asks** questions.\r\n   * **asks**: Transitive Verb\r\nj. Anjana **has** long hair.\r\n   * **has**: Transitive Verb (Indicates possession and has a direct object: \"hair\")\r\nk. A hungry lion **roars**.\r\n   * **roars**: Intransitive Verb\r\nl. He **tried** again and again.\r\n   * **tried**: Intransitive Verb\r\nm. The weather **is** hot.\r\n   * **is**: Linking Verb\r\nn. Owls **hide** in the daytime.\r\n   * **hide**: Intransitive Verb', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(35, 1409, '# Chapter Notes: Humour and Satire\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and grammatical principles presented in the chapter \"Humour and Satire,\" focusing on the essay on superstition.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Ways with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Vocabulary Definitions\r\n\r\n| Word | Meaning |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| **transcendental** | Relating to a spiritual or nonphysical realm. |\r\n| **deplore** | To feel or express strong disapproval of something. |\r\n| **absolve** | To set free from blame, guilt, or responsibility. |\r\n| **juju** | A charm or fetish believed to have magical powers, used in West Africa. |\r\n| **crude** | In a natural or raw state; not yet processed or refined. |\r\n| **chronicle** | A factual written account of important or historical events in order of their occurrence. |\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Vocabulary in Context\r\n\r\n* **condemn**: The international community was quick to **condemn** the unprovoked act of aggression.\r\n* **terror**: A sudden wave of **terror** washed over him as he realized he was lost.\r\n* **unbidden**: Memories of his childhood came to him **unbidden**.\r\n* **persist**: If the symptoms **persist**, it is advisable to see a doctor.\r\n* **devout**: She was a **devout** follower of her faith, attending services every week.\r\n* **banish**: He sought to **banish** all negative thoughts from his mind.\r\n* **creed**: The organization welcomes people of every race, color, and **creed**.\r\n* **hasten**: The development of a vaccine will **hasten** the end of the pandemic.\r\n* **sober**: After the initial excitement, the team had a **sober** discussion about the challenges ahead.\r\n* **scorn**: The artist felt nothing but **scorn** for the critics who misunderstood her work.\r\n* **yearning**: He felt a deep **yearning** for the mountains of his homeland.\r\n* **aloof**: Despite his fame, the actor remained **aloof** and private.\r\n* **swarthy**: The sailor had a **swarthy** complexion after years spent at sea.\r\n* **humbler**: After his defeat, he adopted a much **humbler** attitude.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Word Origins (Etymology)\r\n\r\n* **Minatory**: From Latin *minatorius*, meaning \"threatening.\"\r\n  * *Sentence*: The bully\'s **minatory** glare was intended to intimidate the other students.\r\n* **Placate**: From Latin *placatus*, meaning \"to appease\" or \"soothe.\"\r\n  * *Sentence*: The manager tried to **placate** the angry customer with an offer of a full refund.\r\n* **Cajole**: From French *cajoler*, meaning \"to coax\" or \"flatter.\"\r\n  * *Sentence*: He managed to **cajole** his friend into helping him with the difficult task.\r\n* **Antedate**: From Latin *ante* (\"before\") + *dare* (\"to date\").\r\n  * *Sentence*: The Roman ruins **antedate** the medieval castle by several centuries.\r\n* **Proliferate**: From Latin *proles* (\"offspring\") + *ferre* (\"to bear\").\r\n  * *Sentence*: After the rains, wildflowers began to **proliferate** across the hills.\r\n* **Philter**: From Greek *philtron*, related to *philein* (\"to love\").\r\n  * *Sentence*: In the ancient myth, the hero unknowingly drinks a magic **philter** and falls in love.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### D. The Prefix ‘super-’\r\n\r\nThe prefix **‘super-’** generally means \"above,\" \"beyond,\" \"over,\" or \"greater than.\"\r\n\r\n| Word with Prefix | Meaning of Word | Meaning without Prefix |\r\n| :--- | :--- | :--- |\r\n| **Superimpose** | To lay one thing over another. | **Impose**: To force something to be accepted. |\r\n| **Superman** | A man with abilities beyond those of normal humans. | **Man**: An adult male human. |\r\n| **Supernatural** | Beyond the ordinary forces of nature. | **Natural**: Existing in or caused by nature. |\r\n| **Supernumerary** | Exceeding the standard number; extra. | **Numerary**: Relating to a number. |\r\n| **Superstar** | An extremely famous and successful performer. | **Star**: A famous performer. |\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. According to the author, what are the four types of superstition?**\r\nAccording to the author, the four classical divisions of superstition are: **Vain Observances**, **Divination**, **Idolatry**, and **Improper Worship of the True God**.\r\n\r\n**b. Which language is the word \'superstition\' derived from? What does it mean?**\r\nThe word \'superstition\' is derived from the Latin word *superstes* (via *superstitio*), which originally meant \"one who stands over\" or \"a survivor.\" In a religious context, it came to mean one who has an excessive or irrational fear of the divine, essentially \"to stand in terror of the Deity.\"\r\n\r\n**c. How do psychologists understand superstition?**\r\nPsychologists often understand superstition as a form of compulsive behavior linked to the human desire to find patterns and exert control over uncertain situations. It can be seen as a coping mechanism that, once established, persists even when rationally understood to be ineffective, similar to a neurosis.\r\n\r\n**d. How does superstition differ from religion?**\r\nWhile both involve belief systems, religion is typically a structured and communal framework of faith, worship, and ethics centered on a deity or deities. Superstition, in contrast, generally consists of isolated beliefs in specific cause-and-effect rituals or omens that are not necessarily part of a broader, coherent theological system.\r\n\r\n**e. What is the belief of some people in Middle Europe about sneezing?**\r\nSome people in Middle Europe believe that when a person sneezes, their soul momentarily leaves their body. To protect the soul from being captured by evil spirits during this vulnerable moment, they hasten to say a blessing.\r\n\r\n**f. In the author’s view, why are people so fascinated by superstition?**\r\nIn the author\'s view, people are fascinated by superstition because it stems from a deep-seated and universal human desire to know one\'s fate and to have some influence over it.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. What is the key takeaway of this essay? Do you think that this essay is satirical?\r\n\r\nThe key takeaway of this essay is the universality and persistence of superstition. The author argues that superstitious beliefs are not confined to the uneducated or to ancient history; rather, they are deeply embedded in the human psyche and manifest in people from all walks of life, regardless of their rationality or level of education. The essay posits that these beliefs arise from a fundamental human need to control uncertainty and understand one\'s destiny.\r\n\r\nThe essay is profoundly satirical. The author employs satire to critique human irrationality by juxtaposing modern, educated individuals with ancient, \"crude\" superstitions. He does this by:\r\n* Citing examples of highly educated people, such as university professors, who resort to superstitious practices like consulting the *I Ching*.\r\n* Describing the \"civilized\" ritual of throwing salt over one\'s shoulder.\r\n* Pointing out the presence of lucky charms on the desks of examination candidates.\r\nThrough these examples, he humorously exposes the contradiction between our supposed rationality and our persistent, illogical behaviors, suggesting that we are not as far removed from our \"primitive\" ancestors as we might like to think.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. Can education bring change in the belief of superstition?\r\n\r\nEducation can undoubtedly bring significant change in superstitious beliefs, but it is unlikely to eradicate them completely. Its primary power lies in its ability to foster critical thinking and provide scientific explanations for natural phenomena, thereby demystifying what was once unknown.\r\n\r\nEducation directly challenges the foundation of many superstitions. For example, an understanding of biology and medicine makes a person more likely to seek treatment from a doctor for an illness rather than from a faith healer attempting to cast out demons. Knowledge of meteorology explains weather patterns, removing the need to attribute storms to angry gods. By replacing fear of the unknown with rational understanding, education diminishes the power of superstition.\r\n\r\nHowever, education has its limits. Superstition is not solely a product of ignorance; it is also rooted in deep-seated psychological needs for control, comfort, and hope in the face of uncertainty. This is why even highly educated individuals may carry a lucky charm into an exam or avoid walking under a ladder. These actions are often not born of a genuine belief in their efficacy but from a \"just in case\" mentality that provides a small, comforting illusion of control. As long as humans face uncertainty and desire a hand in deciding their fate, some form of superstition is likely to persist, regardless of education levels.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Writing\r\n\r\n### a. Essay: Superstitions in My Community\r\n\r\nSuperstitions, the age-old beliefs passed down through generations, remain a vibrant and influential part of the cultural fabric of my community in Nepal. Despite advancements in science and education, these practices continue to shape daily actions and decisions, reflecting a deep connection to tradition and a desire to navigate the uncertainties of life. They are as old as the mountains themselves, woven into the very rhythm of our lives.\r\n\r\nOne of the most common superstitions involves the cawing of a crow. If a crow caws from the roof of a house, it is widely believed to be an omen signaling the imminent arrival of a guest. Similarly, an itchy palm is interpreted based on gender; for a man, an itchy right palm predicts financial gain, while for a woman, the same is true for the left. These beliefs, while seemingly trivial, often bring a sense of anticipation or hope to an ordinary day.\r\n\r\nOther superstitions serve as cautionary tales. A black cat crossing one\'s path is considered a sign of bad luck, often causing people to pause and wait for someone else to pass first, thereby transferring the misfortune. The twitching of an eye is another powerful omen, with the right eye signifying good news and the left foretelling something unfortunate. These beliefs, born from a pre-scientific era, provided a framework for understanding a world that often seemed random and uncontrollable.\r\n\r\nWhile modern education encourages a scientific and rational mindset, these superstitions persist not necessarily because of a lack of knowledge, but because they are part of our cultural identity. They are the stories our grandparents told us, the rituals that connect us to our past, and the small, harmless ways we try to impose order on a chaotic world.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. \"Superstition is prevalent in every walk of life.\"\r\n\r\nThe assertion that superstition is prevalent in every walk of life is not only true but also a profound observation of the human condition. From the most isolated rural communities to the most technologically advanced urban centers, superstitious beliefs and practices persist, defying logic, education, and modernity. This universality suggests that superstition is not merely a product of ignorance but is deeply rooted in human psychology.\r\n\r\nThe roots of superstition often lie in our innate desire to find patterns and create cause-and-effect narratives, especially in situations where we feel a lack of control. An ancient farmer might have performed a ritual to ensure a good harvest, attributing a successful crop to the ritual rather than favorable weather. A modern-day athlete might wear the same pair of \"lucky\" socks for every game, linking a past victory to an article of clothing. A high-stakes investor might refuse to make a trade on a day that has previously brought bad luck. In each case, the individual is attempting to impose order and influence outcomes in an unpredictable environment.\r\n\r\nThese beliefs transcend cultural and educational boundaries. The Western aversion to the number 13 is just as irrational as the Nepali belief that a black cat crossing one\'s path is a bad omen. A university student placing a lucky charm on their exam desk is engaging in the same fundamental behavior as a villager consulting an astrologer before a major life event. Despite scientific progress, the fundamental uncertainties of life—success, failure, health, and fortune—remain. As long as these uncertainties exist, humanity will continue to reach for superstitions as a comforting, albeit illogical, tool to navigate the unknown.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: Present Simple vs. Present Continuous\r\n\r\n### B. Put the Verb into the Correct Form\r\n\r\na. Nisha **speaks** English very well.\r\nb. Hurry up! We **are waiting** for you.\r\nc. Excuse me! **Do you speak** English?\r\nd. She **is having** a shower in the bathroom.\r\ne. How often **do you read** a newspaper?\r\nf. I\'m sorry, I **don\'t understand**. Can you speak more slowly?\r\ng. You can turn off the radio. I **am not listening** to it.\r\nh. I usually **get up** at 5 o\'clock every morning.\r\ni. Look! The river **is flowing** very fast.\r\nj. Amrita **does not seem** very happy at the moment.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Correct the Underlined Verbs\r\n\r\na. *Correct*: Water boils at 100° C.\r\nb. *Incorrect*: The water boils. Can you turn it off?\r\n   * *Correct*: The water **is boiling**. Can you turn it off?\r\nc. *Incorrect*: I must go now. It gets late.\r\n   * *Correct*: I must go now. It **is getting** late.\r\nd. *Incorrect*: This sauce\'s tasting really good.\r\n   * *Correct*: This sauce **tastes** really good.\r\ne. *Incorrect*: I’m thinking this is your key.\r\n   * *Correct*: I **think** this is your key.\r\nf. *Incorrect*: Are you believing in God?\r\n   * *Correct*: **Do you believe** in God?\r\ng. *Correct*: I usually go to school on foot.\r\nh. *Incorrect*: Look! That man tries to open the door of her car.\r\n   * *Correct*: Look! That man **is trying** to open the door of her car.\r\ni. *Incorrect*: The moon is going round the earth.\r\n   * *Correct*: The moon **goes** round the earth.\r\nj. *Correct*: I\'m getting hungry. Let\'s go and eat.', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56');
INSERT INTO `course_notes_content` (`id`, `topic_id`, `content`, `markdown_format`, `created_at`, `updated_at`) VALUES
(36, 1410, '# Chapter Notes: Democracy and Human Rights\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and historical context of Nelson Mandela\'s inauguration speech and the broader themes of democracy and human rights.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Ways with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Vocabulary Definitions\r\n\r\n* **apartheid**: The system that completely separated black people from white people.\r\n* **protest**: A formal objection.\r\n* **tribe**: An ethnical group of people.\r\n* **campaign**: An act undertaken to achieve a set goal.\r\n* **inauguration**: The formal beginning of any movement.\r\n* **exhilaration**: A strong feeling of excitement and happiness.\r\n* **emancipation**: Being set free from legal, social, or political restrictions.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Vocabulary in Context\r\n\r\n* **liberty**: The state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one\'s way of life, behavior, or political views.\r\n* **conflict**: A serious disagreement or argument, typically a protracted one.\r\n* **ideology**: A system of ideas and ideals, especially one which forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy.\r\n* **oppression**: Prolonged cruel or unjust treatment or exercise of authority.\r\n* **privilege**: A special right, advantage, or immunity granted or available only to a particular person or group.\r\n* **dignity**: The state or quality of being worthy of honor or respect.\r\n* **surrender**: To stop resisting an enemy or opponent and submit to their authority.\r\n* **reconciliation**: The restoration of friendly relations.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Pronunciation of the ‘-ed’ Suffix\r\n\r\n| /t/ | /d/ | /ɪd/ |\r\n| :--- | :--- | :--- |\r\n| asked | killed | ended |\r\n| missed | smiled | decided |\r\n| washed | enjoyed | visited |\r\n| watched | | lasted |\r\n| picked | | wanted |\r\n| fixed | | |\r\n| walked | | |\r\n| blessed (verb) | | |\r\n| brushed | | |\r\n| stopped | | |\r\n| reached | | |\r\n| laughed | | |\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### D. Pronunciation of the Plural ‘-s/-es’ Suffix\r\n\r\n| /s/ (voiceless) | /z/ (voiced) | /ɪz/ (sibilant) |\r\n| :--- | :--- | :--- |\r\n| cats | dogs | horses |\r\n| books | boys | houses |\r\n| roofs | rooms | noises |\r\n| shops | girls | pages |\r\n| | trees | benches |\r\n| | babies | classes |\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. What were the restrictions imposed on the Blacks in South Africa?**\r\nUnder the system of apartheid in South Africa, Black people faced severe restrictions, including racial segregation in all public facilities, political disenfranchisement (denial of the right to vote), economic discrimination, and laws that controlled their movement and place of residence.\r\n\r\n**b. Why was Mandela arrested?**\r\nNelson Mandela was arrested for his role as a leader in the African National Congress (ANC) and its armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe. He was charged with sabotage and conspiring to overthrow the apartheid state.\r\n\r\n**c. How did he describe racism and racial oppression?**\r\nIn his speech, he described racism and racial oppression as a \"pernicious ideology and practice,\" highlighting their evil and destructive nature.\r\n\r\n**d. Why did he thank all the international guests?**\r\nHe thanked the international guests for their presence, which he described as an act of solidarity. Their attendance symbolized the world\'s acceptance of the new, democratic South Africa and its victory for justice, peace, and human dignity, marking an end to the country\'s international isolation.\r\n\r\n**e. Why did he think that people in his country had achieved political emancipation?**\r\nHe believed the people had achieved **political emancipation** because they had won the right to govern themselves through a free and fair democratic process. He viewed this as the crucial first step that would enable them to pursue the broader goal of liberating all citizens from the \"bondage of poverty, deprivation, suffering, gender and other discrimination.\"\r\n\r\n**f. What is the main point of Mandela\'s speech?**\r\nThe main point of Mandela\'s speech is to celebrate the birth of a new, non-racial democracy in South Africa and to call for unity and reconciliation. He urges all South Africans, regardless of race, to work together to build a society founded on justice, peace, equality, and respect for the dignity of every individual.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. What does Mandela mean when he says - \"a rainbow nation at peace with itself and the world\"?\r\n\r\nMandela\'s phrase \"a rainbow nation\" is a powerful and enduring metaphor for the post-apartheid South Africa he envisioned. A rainbow is composed of many different colors, coexisting harmoniously to create something beautiful. By using this image, Mandela meant that South Africa\'s strength and beauty would come from the unity of its diverse racial, cultural, and ethnic groups—including Black, White, Coloured, and Indian people. He was calling for an end to the division and conflict of the past and urging citizens to embrace their diversity as a source of national pride.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, a rainbow often appears after a storm, symbolizing hope and a bright future. For South Africa, the \"storm\" was the brutal era of apartheid. The \"rainbow nation\" thus represents the hope for a peaceful and prosperous future that could emerge from a dark and violent past. Being \"at peace with itself\" signifies a society that has healed its internal wounds through reconciliation, and \"at peace with the world\" signifies its re-acceptance into the global community as a just and democratic state.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. Mandela should have avenged those who imprisoned him. Instead, he followed the path of reconciliation. Why?\r\n\r\nNelson Mandela’s decision to pursue reconciliation instead of revenge was a profoundly strategic and visionary choice, rooted in his understanding of what was necessary to build a stable and unified nation. Had he sought vengeance against his former oppressors, he would have likely plunged South Africa into a devastating cycle of violence and civil war, tearing apart the very society he had fought to liberate.\r\n\r\nMandela recognized several key truths:\r\n1.  **National Unity was Paramount**: A functional democracy could not be built on a foundation of retribution. For the nation to move forward, all groups, including the white minority who still controlled the economy and military, needed to feel they had a place in the new South Africa.\r\n2.  **The Cycle of Violence**: Revenge would only perpetuate the hatred and division that defined apartheid. Reconciliation was the only path to break this cycle and establish a lasting peace.\r\n3.  **Moral and Political Leadership**: By choosing forgiveness, Mandela set a powerful moral example. This act of magnanimity demonstrated immense strength and established his credibility not just as a leader for Black South Africans, but as a president for all South Africans.\r\n\r\nHis path of reconciliation was not a sign of weakness but of immense foresight. It was a pragmatic decision to prioritize the future of his nation over any personal desire for vengeance, ensuring a peaceful transition to democracy.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### c. Segregation in the world and in your society.\r\n\r\nSegregation, the systematic separation of people based on race, class, caste, or ethnicity, has been a persistent and destructive force in societies worldwide. It is enforced through discriminatory laws, social barriers, and economic restrictions, leading to inequality and conflict. Historically, the most infamous example is South Africa\'s apartheid, but racial segregation also has a long and painful history in the United States. Beyond race, societies have struggled with religious segregation and the isolation of ethnic minorities. In all its forms, segregation denies a group\'s fundamental human rights and creates deep societal divisions that can lead to violence and instability.\r\n\r\nIn my own society, Nepal, evidence of segregation persists despite being constitutionally outlawed. The most prominent form is rooted in the traditional Hindu caste system. Although the law prohibits caste-based discrimination, deep-seated social hierarchies continue to affect people\'s lives, particularly in rural areas. The so-called \"lower\" castes, especially Dalits, still face discrimination in housing, employment, and social interactions, including restrictions on entering temples or using communal water sources. While Nepal is a multicultural and multi-ethnic nation, this underlying caste structure has historically created a form of social segregation that continues to be a significant challenge to achieving true equality for all citizens.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Writing\r\n\r\n### a. Biography of a Nepali Freedom Fighter: Ganesh Man Singh\r\n\r\nGanesh Man Singh, born on November 9, 1915, stands as an icon of Nepal\'s struggle for democracy and is revered as the commander of the historic 1990 Janaandolan (People\'s Movement). A man of unwavering integrity and immense courage, his life was dedicated to freeing Nepal from autocratic rule.\r\n\r\nSingh\'s political journey began with his involvement in the movement against the Rana regime, an autocratic family dynasty that ruled Nepal for over a century. For his activism, he was sentenced to life imprisonment but made a legendary escape from prison in 1944. He became one of the principal leaders of the Nepali Congress party and was instrumental in the 1951 revolution that finally overthrew the Ranas and ushered in an era of democracy. However, this democratic period was short-lived. In 1960, King Mahendra dissolved the parliament and banned political parties, imprisoning Singh once again.\r\n\r\nAfter his release, Ganesh Man Singh never wavered in his commitment to restoring democracy. He spent decades organizing, protesting, and uniting political forces. His leadership culminated in the 1990 Janaandolan, a mass uprising that forced the king to lift the ban on political parties and accept a constitutional monarchy. In a remarkable act of selflessness, he declined the offer to become Prime Minister, instead choosing to remain a guiding figure for the nation.\r\n\r\nFor his immense contribution to democracy and human rights, Ganesh Man Singh was honored with the prestigious United Nations Human Rights Award in 1993, the first statesman from South Asia to receive it. He remains an immortal figure in Nepali history, a \"Father of Democracy\" whose legacy of sacrifice and incorruptible leadership continues to inspire the nation.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: Modals (should, shouldn\'t, had better)\r\n\r\n### B. Complete with *should* or *shouldn\'t*\r\n\r\na. You have really done a wonderful job. I recommend you **shouldn’t quit** it.\r\nb. That\'s a very dangerous area. Tourists **shouldn’t visit** there.\r\nc. I\'m going to be late. Do you think I **should leave** now?\r\nd. Children **shouldn’t drink** sugary drinks. It\'s not very healthy.\r\ne. I have lots of homework. I **shouldn’t roam** here and there today.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Put in *had better* or *should*\r\n\r\na. I think you **should** learn English to enroll in a university course.\r\nb. It\'s a great film. You **should** go and see it.\r\nc. I have to meet my friend in ten minutes. I **\'d better** go now or I\'ll be late.\r\nd. These biscuits are delicious. You **should** try one.\r\ne. We **\'d better** get to the airport by 2 pm or else we may miss the flight.\r\nf. When people are driving, they **should** keep their eyes on the road.\r\ng. I **should** get up early tomorrow. I\'ve got a lot to do.', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(37, 1411, '# Chapter Notes: Home Life and Family Relationship\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and themes presented in the chapter \"Home Life and Family Relationship,\" focusing on the short story \"The Tattered Blanket.\"\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Ways with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Fill in the Blanks\r\n\r\na. All my efforts to convince her for the tour were **futile**.\r\nb. The lost traveller **huddled up** under a shelter made of branches and leaves.\r\nc. Her rude behaviour was the main cause of **irritation** for him.\r\nd. She moved **awkwardly** in the room, thinking that I was watching.\r\ne. She is **mumbling** something, but I can’t hear her.\r\nf. When I met my sister after a long time, she talked to me in a **feeble** voice.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Synonyms\r\n\r\na. Rupa studied Science **reluctantly** due to her father’s pressure.\r\n   * **Correct Answer**: ii. unwillingly\r\n\r\nb. She moved her fingers **exasperatedly** through her hair.\r\n   * **Correct Answer**: iv. annoyingly\r\n\r\nc. My grandmother is over eighty. She lifted her hands **feebly**.\r\n   * **Correct Answer**: iii. weakly\r\n\r\nd. She is wearing a **tattered** shawl.\r\n   * **Correct Answer**: ii. torn\r\n\r\ne. I have to work at two jobs to **make ends meet** in this expensive city.\r\n   * **Correct Answer**: iv. earn just enough money\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### D. Syllable Division\r\n\r\n| Word | Syllabic Division | Syllable Count |\r\n| :--- | :--- | :--- |\r\n| **bury** | bur-y | 2 |\r\n| **development** | de-vel-op-ment | 4 |\r\n| **syllabic** | syl-lab-ic | 3 |\r\n| **vowel** | vow-el | 2 |\r\n| **education** | ed-u-ca-tion | 4 |\r\n| **discipline** | dis-ci-pline | 3 |\r\n| **examination** | ex-am-i-na-tion | 5 |\r\n| **children** | chil-dren | 2 |\r\n| **separately** | sep-a-rate-ly | 4 |\r\n| **pronunciation** | pro-nun-ci-a-tion | 5 |\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. Why didn\'t the mother recognise her son Gopi?**\r\nThe mother, who is eighty-three years old, did not recognise her son Gopi due to severe memory loss associated with old age. Her fading memory is also a poignant reflection of her son\'s long absence and emotional distance.\r\n\r\n**b. Why is the sister living with her mother?**\r\nThe sister, Kamala, is a widow and lives with their mother to take care of her in her old age, fulfilling a familial duty that her brother has neglected.\r\n\r\n**c. What is the sister’s attitude towards her brother?**\r\nThe sister\'s attitude towards her brother is one of bitterness, resentment, and disappointment. She is critical of his long absence and his failure to even write letters, viewing his sudden visit as a superficial gesture rather than a genuine act of care.\r\n\r\n**d. Does the son love his mother very much? How do you know that?**\r\nThe story strongly suggests that the son\'s love for his mother has been overshadowed by his own self-centered life. While he makes a small gesture by bending down to her, his actions—failing to visit for five years, not writing for a year, and forgetting his promise to buy her a blanket—indicate a profound neglect, not deep love. His brief visit seems more a matter of duty or guilt than affection.\r\n\r\n**e. What does the mother actually need: a blanket or the warmth of her son’s love?**\r\nThe mother actually needs the warmth of her son\'s love and attention. The blanket is a powerful symbol in the story; while a new blanket could provide physical warmth, it cannot replace the emotional warmth, care, and connection she craves from her son.\r\n\r\n**f. What does the phrase \'the tattered blanket’ mean? Is it only the blanket that is tattered?**\r\nThe phrase \'the tattered blanket\' is symbolic. It represents not only the physical object but also the mother\'s neglected and frayed life, her fading memories, and the tattered, broken state of her relationship with her son. The blanket\'s condition mirrors the lack of warmth and care in her life, a direct result of her son\'s indifference.\r\n\r\n**g. The son says, ‘Amma can\'t remember who I am’. Do you think that he remembered his mother? Why didn’t he answer when his sister asked, ‘Do you remember your Amma?’**\r\nGopi\'s silence when his sister asks, \"Do you remember your Amma?\" is a clear admission of his guilt and neglect. While he remembers her in a literal sense, his actions show that he has not truly *remembered* her in a meaningful way—he has not been present, he has not written, and he has not fulfilled her needs. His silence reveals his inability to defend his own forgetfulness and lack of care.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. What can be the expectations of parents from their offspring in old age?\r\n\r\nAs parents transition into old age, their expectations of their children often shift from material support to more profound emotional and social needs. Having fulfilled their primary responsibilities, their desires become centered on dignity, companionship, and a sense of belonging.\r\n\r\n* **Respect and Dignity**: Above all, elderly parents expect to be treated with the respect and dignity they have earned over a lifetime. They want their experiences and wisdom to be acknowledged, and they wish to avoid being treated as a burden.\r\n* **Companionship and Time**: Loneliness can be a significant challenge in old age. Parents often crave the simple gift of their children\'s time—regular visits, phone calls, and conversations that make them feel connected and valued.\r\n* **Inclusion and Purpose**: After retirement, many elderly individuals feel a loss of purpose. They expect their children to include them in family discussions and decisions, no matter how small. This involvement helps them feel that they are still an integral and contributing part of the family.\r\n* **Empathy and Understanding**: Old age brings physical and mental challenges. Parents expect their children to be patient and empathetic, understanding their limitations and providing comfort and reassurance.\r\n\r\nUltimately, these expectations are not about grand gestures but about the consistent, small acts of love and consideration that affirm their place and value within the family.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. Why do some children who live at a distance tend to be indifferent to the feelings of their parents?\r\n\r\nThe indifference some adult children show towards their distant parents is a complex issue, often stemming from a combination of practical pressures and gradual emotional detachment rather than outright malice.\r\n\r\nFirstly, the demands of modern life play a significant role. Children who move away for education, careers, or their own families become deeply engrossed in their immediate responsibilities. The relentless pursuit of professional goals and the daily needs of their own spouse and children can consume their time and emotional energy, leaving little room for their parents who are \"out of sight, out of mind.\"\r\n\r\nSecondly, physical distance inevitably creates emotional distance. Without regular face-to-face interaction, the parent-child bond can weaken. Communication becomes less frequent and more superficial, gradually eroding the deep understanding and empathy that characterize a close relationship. Over time, the parents\' world and feelings become abstract and less urgent compared to the child\'s immediate reality.\r\n\r\nFinally, there can be a shift in personal priorities. For some, personal success and the well-being of their nuclear family become the primary focus of their lives. In this reordering of priorities, the emotional needs of their aging parents can, unfortunately, become secondary. This indifference is often not a conscious choice but a gradual consequence of distance, distraction, and a changing life focus.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### c. A mother\'s love is everlasting and indispensable. Justify.\r\n\r\nA mother\'s love is often described as everlasting and indispensable because it forms the foundational emotional bedrock of a person\'s life. It is unique in its unconditional and selfless nature, beginning before birth and continuing throughout a child\'s life, regardless of circumstances.\r\n\r\nThis love is **indispensable** for healthy development. A mother is typically a child\'s first teacher, mentor, and caregiver. From the earliest moments of life, she provides not only physical nourishment but also the emotional security and comfort that are crucial for building trust and a stable personality. She teaches the first lessons about right and wrong, instills values, and provides a safe haven from the challenges of the world. This formative influence is irreplaceable and shapes a child\'s character and worldview in profound ways.\r\n\r\nThe love is also **everlasting**. While other relationships may be conditional or may fade over time, a mother\'s devotion typically remains constant. She celebrates her child\'s successes and provides unwavering support during times of failure. This persistent, non-judgmental love serves as a lifelong source of strength and reassurance. It is a gift of pure heart and complete devotion, a constant presence that one can always return to. For these reasons, a mother is often considered God\'s most precious gift, and her love is a force that is both essential and eternal.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: Conjunctions and Connectors\r\n\r\n### B. Complete the Sentences\r\n\r\na. **In spite of** the fact that he is an octogenarian, he still leads an active life.\r\nb. I still enjoyed the week **although** the weather was bad.\r\nc. He has passed his MA. **However**, he hasn’t got a job.\r\nd. **Although** I had a headache, I enjoyed the movie.\r\ne. Ramila didn’t get the job **in spite of** the fact that she had all the necessary qualifications.\r\nf. **In spite of** the fact that he had no money, he bought the car anyway.\r\ng. We can go to the park for lunch **although** the weather report says it\'s going to rain.\r\nh. **Although** I speak English well, my first language is actually Maithili.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Combine the Sentences\r\n\r\na. **Although** he was annoyed, he didn’t say anything.\r\nb. Playing the stock market is exciting; **however**, it can be risky.\r\nc. **Even though** he works slowly, he never makes a mistake.\r\nd. **In spite of** the rain, we still went to the park.\r\ne. **Despite** it being expensive, Hark bought the watch.\r\nf. He is very poor **but** wears expensive clothes.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### D. Rewrite the Sentences\r\n\r\na. He had very little time, but he offered to help us.\r\n   * **Although** he had very little time, he offered to help us.\r\n   * **In spite of** having very little time, he offered to help us.\r\nb. She is very poor, but she still wears expensive clothes.\r\n   * **Although** she is very poor, she still wears expensive clothes.\r\n   * **In spite of** being very poor, she still wears expensive clothes.\r\nc. He\'s a millionaire, but he lives in a very small flat.\r\n   * **Although** he\'s a millionaire, he lives in a very small flat.\r\n   * **In spite of** being a millionaire, he lives in a very small flat.\r\nd. They have a lot of money, but they are still not happy.\r\n   * **Although** they have a lot of money, they are still not happy.\r\n   * **In spite of** having a lot of money, they are still not happy.\r\ne. The traffic was heavy, but we got there in time.\r\n   * **Although** the traffic was heavy, we got there in time.\r\n   * **In spite of** the heavy traffic, we got there in time.', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(38, 1412, '# Chapter Notes: Arts and Creations\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and historical context of the Renaissance, as presented in the chapter \"Arts and Creations.\"\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Ways with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Vocabulary Meanings\r\n\r\n* **revolt**: a protest against authority, especially that of a government.\r\n* **conventions**: traditions or social customs.\r\n* **blended**: mixed together.\r\n* **dome**: a large, rounded roof or ceiling.\r\n* **marks**: serves as a sign of.\r\n* **flourished**: grew and improved.\r\n* **passion**: enthusiasm.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Idioms and Their Usage\r\n\r\n* **a hot potato**: A controversial issue or situation that is awkward to deal with.\r\n  * *Sentence*: The issue of border control has become a political **hot potato**.\r\n* **once in a blue moon**: Very rarely.\r\n  * *Sentence*: My brother lives abroad, so we only see him **once in a blue moon**.\r\n* **a bed of roses**: A comfortable or easy situation.\r\n  * *Sentence*: Starting a new business is never **a bed of roses**.\r\n* **when pigs fly**: Something that will never happen.\r\n  * *Sentence*: He said he\'ll pay back the loan, but I think it will happen **when pigs fly**.\r\n* **miss the boat**: To lose an opportunity by not taking action quickly enough.\r\n  * *Sentence*: The property market is rising so fast; if we don\'t buy a house soon, we might **miss the boat**.\r\n* **zip your lip**: To stop talking or to keep a secret.\r\n  * *Sentence*: I need you to **zip your lip** about the surprise party.\r\n* **fight tooth and nail**: To fight with great intensity and determination.\r\n  * *Sentence*: The community had to **fight tooth and nail** to prevent the new highway from being built.\r\n* **when life gives you lemons, make lemonade**: To make the best out of a difficult situation.\r\n  * *Sentence*: After being laid off, she started her own successful company, truly showing that **when life gives you lemons, make lemonade**.\r\n* **goose egg**: A score of zero in a game.\r\n  * *Sentence*: Our team played hard, but we ended the first half with a **goose egg**.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### D. Phrasal Verbs\r\n\r\n| Phrasal Verb | Meaning |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| **break down** | To stop functioning. |\r\n| **check out** | To leave a hotel after paying. |\r\n| **fed up** | To be tired of or annoyed by something. |\r\n| **fill out** | To complete a form. |\r\n| **get away** | To escape. |\r\n| **give away** | To give something for free. |\r\n| **give up** | To quit a habit. |\r\n| **look forward to** | To anticipate something with pleasure. |\r\n| **make up** | To invent a story or lie. |\r\n| **pass away** | To die. |\r\n| **put out** | To extinguish a fire. |\r\n| **take off** | To remove clothing; for an airplane to depart. |\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### A. Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. What does the word Renaissance mean? Which language is it derived from?**\r\nThe word Renaissance means \"rebirth.\" It is derived from the French word *renaître*, which means \"to be born again.\"\r\n\r\n**b. What did the Greek scholars do in their new locations after leaving the Greek city?**\r\nAfter the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Greek scholars migrated to Italy and other parts of Europe, where they taught the Greek language and shared their knowledge of classical texts in philosophy, science, and literature, which had been largely lost to Western Europe during the Middle Ages.\r\n\r\n**c. How did ‘new learning’ teach people to think in different ways?**\r\nThe \'new learning,\' or Humanism, taught people to think differently by shifting the focus from a purely religious and afterlife-centered worldview to one that celebrated human potential, reason, and life on Earth. It encouraged critical thinking, direct observation, and the study of classical antiquity, which inspired new forms of creative expression in art, literature, and science.\r\n\r\n**d. Describe the artistic developments of the Renaissance in brief.**\r\nArtistic developments flourished, particularly in Italian city-states like Florence, which became wealthy through trade and banking. Rich patrons, such as the Medici family, sponsored artists, leading to a surge in creativity. The period was defined by a move towards realism, proportion, and the study of human anatomy, exemplified by masters like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. In architecture, Filippo Brunelleschi\'s dome for the Florence Cathedral marked a revolutionary feat of engineering.\r\n\r\n**e. Name three Renaissance scientists who made great discoveries.**\r\nThree pivotal scientists of the Renaissance were Nicolaus Copernicus, who proposed the heliocentric model of the universe; Galileo Galilei, whose telescopic observations supported Copernicus\'s theory; and Sir Isaac Newton, who later formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation.\r\n\r\n**f. Who developed the printing press? Which country was he from?**\r\nJohannes Gutenberg, who was from Germany, developed the printing press with movable type around 1440.\r\n\r\n**g. Why is the printing press considered one of the gifts of the Renaissance?**\r\nThe printing press is considered a transformative gift of the Renaissance because it revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge. Before its invention, books were rare and expensive handwritten manuscripts. The printing press made it possible to produce books quickly and affordably, which democratized access to information, fueled literacy, and allowed new ideas, including those of the Reformation and the Scientific Revolution, to spread rapidly across Europe.\r\n\r\n**h. Name five famous explorers of the Renaissance.**\r\nFive famous explorers of the Renaissance were Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan, Sir Francis Drake, and John Cabot.\r\n\r\n**i. Why do some people think of the Renaissance as the beginning of modern history?**\r\nThe Renaissance is often considered the beginning of modern history because it marked a fundamental shift in Western civilization\'s worldview. The period\'s emphasis on humanism, individualism, scientific inquiry, and global exploration moved Europe away from the medieval, God-centered world and laid the intellectual and cultural foundations for the modern era.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Inferences from the Reading\r\n\r\na. Before the Renaissance…\r\n   * **Correct Answer**: education was limited to scholars and the privileged.\r\n\r\nb. Which statement is true?\r\n   * **Correct Answer**: The Greeks had a strong influence on Renaissance thinking.\r\n\r\nc. What did the Renaissance do?\r\n   * **Correct Answer**: It caused people to make changes in their lives.\r\n\r\nd. What were the major causes of the Renaissance?\r\n   * **Correct Answer**: printing, reading, and learning.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. Do you agree with Machiavelli’s view that a good leader can do bad and dishonest things to preserve his power and protect his government?\r\n\r\nI agree that Machiavelli\'s view, while unsettling, presents a pragmatic and often realistic perspective on political leadership. In his work *The Prince*, Machiavelli argues that the primary responsibility of a ruler is the stability and preservation of the state. To achieve this end, a leader must sometimes operate outside the bounds of conventional morality.\r\n\r\nMachiavelli\'s philosophy is not an endorsement of cruelty for its own sake, but rather a cold calculation of political reality. He posits that in a world where other leaders are not bound by morality, a ruler who is always \"good\" will inevitably be destroyed. Therefore, a leader must be willing to be cunning like a fox and strong like a lion, employing deceit, manipulation, and even force when necessary to protect their power and, by extension, their people from internal chaos or external threats. The \"good\" of the state becomes the ultimate justification for actions that, on a personal level, would be considered \"bad.\" This amoral approach, often summarized as \"the ends justify the means,\" acknowledges that the ethics of governance are different from the ethics of private life.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. Are art and literature important assets of a country?\r\n\r\nYes, art and literature are among the most important and invaluable assets of any country. Their significance extends far beyond mere entertainment or decoration; they are the bedrock of a nation\'s culture, identity, and collective consciousness.\r\n\r\nFirst, art and literature serve as the **chronicle of a nation\'s history and values**. They preserve the stories, struggles, triumphs, and traditions that define a people, creating a cultural memory that connects present generations to their past. Epic poems, historical novels, and classical paintings are not just artifacts; they are windows into the soul of a nation.\r\n\r\nSecond, they are essential for **fostering empathy and critical thinking**. By allowing us to step into the lives of others, literature and art broaden our perspectives and deepen our understanding of the human condition. They challenge our assumptions, provoke discussion, and encourage the kind of nuanced, critical thought that is essential for a healthy and democratic society.\r\n\r\nFinally, art and literature can be a powerful **catalyst for social change**. They often serve as a mirror, reflecting society\'s injustices and giving a voice to the marginalized. Throughout history, writers and artists have been at the forefront of movements for social justice, using their work to critique oppression and inspire people to imagine and strive for a better world.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Writing\r\n\r\n### a. Essay: \"Literature is the Reflection of Society\"\r\n\r\nLiterature, in its myriad forms, has always served as a mirror, reflecting the society in which it was created. From ancient oral traditions to the modern novel, storytelling is an inherently social act, capturing the complex tapestry of human experience, values, and conflicts of a particular time and place. It is through literature that we can understand not only the historical events of a period but also its spirit, its anxieties, and its aspirations.\r\n\r\nEvery literary work is a product of its environment. The political climate, social structures, and dominant ideologies of an era inevitably shape the themes, characters, and narratives that writers produce. For example, the epic poems of Homer, *The Iliad* and *The Odyssey*, reflect the values of ancient Greek society, with its emphasis on heroism, honor, and the whims of the gods. Similarly, the novels of Charles Dickens are an indelible portrait of Victorian England, exposing the harsh realities of industrialization, urban poverty, and rigid class hierarchies. A writer does not create in a vacuum; they absorb the world around them, and their work, consciously or unconsciously, becomes a commentary on that world.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, literature reflects the evolution of societal consciousness. The rise of postcolonial literature in the 20th century, for instance, gave voice to the experiences of those who had been silenced by imperialism, challenging dominant historical narratives and reflecting a global shift in power dynamics. In this way, literature does not just passively reflect society; it actively participates in shaping it by questioning the status quo and imagining new possibilities. Thus, to read the literature of a culture is to gain the most intimate and nuanced understanding of its soul.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. \"Today’s reader is tomorrow’s leader.\"\r\n\r\nThe statement \"Today’s reader is tomorrow’s leader\" is a profound truth that underscores the foundational role of reading in developing the essential qualities of leadership. While not every reader will become a leader, the skills and perspectives cultivated through a habit of reading are indispensable for anyone who aspires to guide, innovate, and inspire.\r\n\r\nLeadership requires, above all, a depth of understanding and a capacity for critical thought. Reading is the primary mechanism for acquiring this. A reader is constantly exposed to new ideas, diverse perspectives, and complex arguments. This process hones their ability to analyze information, identify patterns, and make informed decisions—the very core of effective leadership. History, philosophy, science, and fiction all contribute to a vast reservoir of knowledge from which a future leader can draw to solve problems creatively.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, reading cultivates empathy, a crucial trait for any leader who wishes to connect with and motivate people. By immersing themselves in the stories of different characters, cultures, and historical periods, readers learn to see the world from perspectives other than their own. This empathetic understanding allows a leader to appreciate the needs and concerns of their constituents, build consensus, and lead with compassion. In a world of increasing complexity, the leaders of tomorrow will be those who have equipped their minds with the knowledge, critical thinking skills, and empathy that only a lifetime of reading can provide.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### c. Short Biography: Bhanubhakta Acharya\r\n\r\nBhanubhakta Acharya (1814-1868), honored in Nepal with the title *Adikavi* (The First Poet), is the revered figure who laid the foundations of modern Nepali literature. Born into a Brahmin family in the Tanahu district, he received a traditional education at home from his grandfather, which instilled in him a deep appreciation for religious and classical texts.\r\n\r\nBhanubhakta’s most monumental contribution was his translation of the great Sanskrit epic, the *Ramayana*, into the Nepali language. At the time, classical literature was accessible only to the Sanskrit-educated elite. By rendering the epic into simple, melodic Nepali verse, Bhanubhakta made its profound moral and cultural lessons accessible to the common people for the first time. This act was not merely a translation but a foundational cultural event that unified the nation under a common literary language and elevated Nepali to a language capable of expressing high art.\r\n\r\nDespite his immense contribution, Bhanubhakta\'s life was marked by hardship, including a period of unjust imprisonment. It was during his time in jail that he composed a poignant poetic plea to the Prime Minister, a work that not only secured his freedom but is also considered a masterpiece of emotive verse. He died in 1868, without ever seeing his works published or receiving the credit he deserved. His legacy was later secured by the poet Motiram Bhatta, who collected and published his works. Today, Bhanubhakta\'s birthday, Bhanu Jayanti, is celebrated as a national festival, honoring the poet who gave the Nepali people their voice.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: Relative Clauses\r\n\r\n### B. Complete the Sentences and Identify the Clause Type\r\n\r\na. That’s the house **where** I was born.\r\n   * Clause Type: **Defining**\r\nb. My aunt Nita, **who** is a journalist, is coming to visit next week.\r\n   * Clause Type: **Non-defining**\r\nc. People **who** like outdoor activities will love our holidays.\r\n   * Clause Type: **Defining**\r\nd. The early 1960s, **when** the Beatles first started, was a very exciting time in pop culture.\r\n   * Clause Type: **Non-defining**\r\ne. My essay on Shakespeare, **which** I found quite difficult, got a really good mark in the end.\r\n   * Clause Type: **Non-defining**\r\nf. The Mayans, **who** lived in Central America, built many stunning temples.\r\n   * Clause Type: **Non-defining**\r\ng. That’s the girl **whose** brother is in your class.\r\n   * Clause Type: **Defining**\r\nh. The snake **that** was in the garden last week belongs to our next-door neighbor.\r\n   * Clause Type: **Defining**\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Join the Pairs of Sentences\r\n\r\na. He is a musician **whose** albums have sold millions.\r\nb. Amelia, **who** is from Shanghai, speaks English and Chinese fluently.\r\nc. That’s the stadium **where** Real Madrid plays.\r\nd. Dublin, **which** is the capital of Ireland, is my favourite city.\r\ne. The person **to whom** they spoke was really helpful.\r\nf. This smartphone, **which** I bought last week, takes great photos.', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(39, 1413, '# Chapter Notes: Fantasy\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and grammatical principles presented in the chapter \"Fantasy,\" focusing on O. Henry\'s short story, \"The Romance of a Busy Broker.\"\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Working with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Vocabulary Definitions\r\n\r\n| Word | Definition |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| **snappy** | Irritable and inclined to speak sharply. |\r\n| **discretion** | The ability to behave without causing embarrassment or attracting too much attention. |\r\n| **radiant** | Showing great happiness, love, or health. |\r\n| **irresolute** | Not able to decide what to do; hesitant. |\r\n| **brusque** | Using very few words and sounding rude; abrupt. |\r\n| **fitful** | Happening only for short periods; not regular or steady. |\r\n| **harlequin** | A humorous character in some traditional plays. |\r\n| **lull** | A quiet period between times of activity. |\r\n| **janitress** | A woman whose job is to take care of a building. |\r\n| **speck** | A very small spot. |\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Stock Market Terminology\r\n\r\n* **Liquidity**: The ease with which an asset, or security, can be converted into ready cash without affecting its market price.\r\n* **IPO (Initial Public Offering)**: The process by which a private company first sells its shares to the public, becoming a publicly-traded company.\r\n* **NEPSE (Nepal Stock Exchange)**: The only stock exchange in Nepal, serving as the primary marketplace for the trading of securities.\r\n* **Index**: A statistical measure of change in a securities market, created by combining a group of stocks. The NEPSE index, for example, tracks the overall performance of the Nepali stock market.\r\n* **Portfolio**: A collection of financial investments owned by an individual or organization, which may include stocks, bonds, and cash.\r\n* **Dividend**: A distribution of a portion of a company\'s earnings, decided by the board of directors, to a class of its shareholders. It can be paid in cash or as additional stock.\r\n* **Turnover**: A measure of the volume of trading activity in a particular stock or the entire market over a specific period.\r\n* **Margin**: The money borrowed from a brokerage firm to purchase an investment. It is the difference between the total value of securities held in an investor\'s account and the loan amount from the broker.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### A. True, False or Not Given\r\n\r\na. Harvey Maxwell was a stockbroker. **T**\r\nb. He was not happy with his clerk, Pitcher. **NG**\r\nc. Miss Leslie had been married to Maxwell for a year. **F**\r\nd. Maxwell had hired a machine to work in his office. **NG**\r\ne. He had instructed Pitcher to get a new stenographer. **T**\r\nf. Miss Leslie was amazed by Maxwell’s proposal. **T**\r\ng. She thought that he had probably gone mad. **F**\r\nh. She realized that he had been absent-minded due to his business. **T**\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. How did Maxwell enter his office?**\r\nMaxwell entered his office briskly, accompanied by the young lady stenographer. He gave a brief, preoccupied \"Good-morning\" to his clerk, Pitcher, before immediately immersing himself in the business of the day.\r\n\r\n**b. Describe the physical appearance of the young lady.**\r\nThe young lady, Miss Leslie, possessed a beauty that was understated and not typical of a stenographer. She dressed plainly in a grey dress that fitted her well and a neat black turban hat. She avoided flashy jewelry and elaborate hairstyles. On this particular morning, she was described as \"softly and shyly radiant,\" with bright eyes and a happy expression, suggesting a deep inner contentment.\r\n\r\n**c. What changes did Pitcher notice in the young lady?**\r\nPitcher noticed that her usual routine was different. Instead of going directly to her desk in the adjoining room, she lingered in the main office, appearing slightly hesitant or \"irresolute.\" She moved close to Maxwell’s desk, seemingly wanting him to notice her presence, which was a departure from her normal, strictly professional behavior.\r\n\r\n**d. What was Pitcher’s reply to the young lady concerning a new stenographer?**\r\nWhen the young lady inquired about the new stenographer, Pitcher replied that Maxwell had indeed instructed him to hire one. He had contacted an agency the previous day, which was supposed to send several candidates that morning, but so far, none had arrived.\r\n\r\n**e. What proposal did Maxwell make to Miss Leslie?**\r\nIn a moment of distraction from his work, Harvey Maxwell turned to Miss Leslie and abruptly proposed marriage to her, declaring that he had been fond of her for a long time and couldn\'t get along without her.\r\n\r\n**f. How did she react to his proposal?**\r\nHer reaction was a mixture of amazement, tears, and finally, sunny smiles. Overcome with emotion, she tenderly put her arm around the broker\'s neck and reminded him, with gentle humor, that they had already been married the previous evening at a small church around the corner.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: Relative Clauses\r\n\r\n### A. Identifying Relative Clauses\r\n\r\na. I snatched a minute **when things had slackened a bit**.\r\nb. Instead of going straight into the adjoining room, **where her desk was**, she lingered slightly irresolute in the outer office.\r\nc. She was beautiful in a way **that was decidedly unstenographic**.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Fill in the Blanks with Relative Pronouns\r\n\r\na. There is a lady **whose** wallet has been stolen.\r\nb. Do you know the man **who** sold these glasses?\r\nc. The knife **with which** you cut the bread is very sharp. (or The knife **that** you cut the bread with...)\r\nd. Why do you blame him for everything **that** goes wrong?\r\ne. A cemetery is a place **where** dead bodies are buried.\r\nf. This school is for those children **whose** mother tongue is not Nepali.\r\ng. I don’t know the name of the person **to whom** I spoke over the telephone.\r\nh. I came to Kathmandu on the day **when** the devastating earthquake took place.\r\ni. In the application form she wrote **that** she needed a good payment.\r\nj. The pilot explained **why** he made a forced landing on the road.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Joining Sentences with Relative Clauses\r\n\r\na. The building **which/that** was destroyed in the fire has now been rebuilt.\r\nb. A new cricket stadium, **which** can accommodate one hundred thousand people, is being made in Chitwan.\r\nc. Shanghai, **where** I stayed for five years, is the most populated city in the world.\r\nd. This is the man **to whom** I gave some money this morning.\r\ne. Do you know the man **whose** son was awarded in the school yesterday?\r\nf. His step-mother, **with whom** he had been staying, was not very kind to him.\r\ng. He can never forget Nakkhu Jail, **where** he had spent 14 years.\r\nh. He showed me his new tab, **for which** he had paid a hundred thousand rupees.\r\ni. Nelson Mandela joined the ANC in the 1930s, **when** he was a student.\r\nj. She forgot to buy the things **which/that** her mother had told her to buy.', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56');
INSERT INTO `course_notes_content` (`id`, `topic_id`, `content`, `markdown_format`, `created_at`, `updated_at`) VALUES
(40, 1414, '# Chapter Notes: Career and Entrepreneurship\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and grammatical principles presented in the chapter \"Career and Entrepreneurship,\" focusing on the story of Mahabir Pun.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Ways with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Vocabulary Definitions\r\n\r\n* **comfortable**: Making you feel physically relaxed; pleasant to wear, sit on, etc.\r\n* **graduated**: Having a degree from a university.\r\n* **independently**: Without being connected with or influenced by something or by each other.\r\n* **innovation**: The introduction of new things, ideas, or ways of doing something.\r\n* **acquainted**: Familiar with something, having read, seen, or experienced it.\r\n* **entrepreneur**: A person who makes money by starting or running businesses, especially when this involves taking financial risks.\r\n* **platform**: An opportunity or a place for somebody to express their opinions publicly or make progress in a particular area.\r\n* **utilize**: To use something, especially for a practical purpose.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Plural Forms of Nouns\r\n\r\n| Singular | Plural |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| calf | **calves** |\r\n| basis | **bases** |\r\n| sheaf | **sheaves** |\r\n| cactus | **cacti / cactuses** |\r\n| louse | **lice** |\r\n| crisis | **crises** |\r\n| person | **people / persons** |\r\n| formula | **formulas / formulae** |\r\n| ox | **oxen** |\r\n| fungus | **fungi** |\r\n| goose | **geese** |\r\n| oasis | **oases** |\r\n| analysis | **analyses** |\r\n| curriculum | **curricula / curriculums** |\r\n| appendix | **appendixes / appendices** |\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. How did Mahabir Pun begin his lifelong journey in Nepal after coming back from the US?**\r\nUpon returning to Nepal after his studies in the US, Mahabir Pun began his journey by committing himself to his home village of Nangi in the Myagdi district. He started by working as a volunteer teacher to help establish a high school, laying the foundation for his future community-led development projects.\r\n\r\n**b. Why didn\'t he want to work for other companies in the US or in Nepal?**\r\nHe chose not to work for other companies because he was driven by a desire to work independently and to create a tangible, direct impact for the benefit of his community. He was not motivated by the \"so-called\" better living offered by a conventional career but by the freedom to pursue his own vision for social change.\r\n\r\n**c. Why did he get involved in innovation?**\r\nHe got involved in innovation out of necessity. He saw it as the most practical and effective means of finding sustainable solutions to the real-world problems faced by his community, such as lack of internet access, limited economic opportunities, and poor infrastructure.\r\n\r\n**d. What are the income-generating programmes that he helped to start?**\r\nThe income-generating programmes he helped establish are diverse and tailored to the local environment, including yak farming, cheese and jam making, handmade paper production, beekeeping, vegetable and fish farming, handicraft creation, and building camping grounds for trekkers.\r\n\r\n**e. Whose support is Pun getting to proceed with his campaign?**\r\nPun\'s campaign is primarily supported by the local communities themselves. His grassroots approach ensures that the people who benefit from the projects are also the ones driving them forward, creating a sustainable and collaborative model.\r\n\r\n**f. How have developed countries become prosperous?**\r\nDeveloped countries have become prosperous by prioritizing research and innovation. They have consistently invested significant financial and human resources into these sectors, understanding that technological and scientific advancement is the primary engine of economic growth and societal progress.\r\n\r\n**g. How can we keep the most talented and innovative people in Nepal?**\r\nTo retain the most talented and innovative individuals, Nepal must create a supportive ecosystem. This involves establishing a solid infrastructure for research, providing financial and institutional support, and fostering a cultural atmosphere that encourages creativity and risk-taking, allowing them to work productively within the country.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. \"We do not have a culture of innovation that encourages young people to be innovative and creative.\" Do you agree with this statement?\r\n\r\nI strongly agree with Mahabir Pun\'s assertion. Nepal\'s prevailing culture, particularly within its educational and professional systems, often stifles rather than encourages the innovation and creativity essential for national development.\r\n\r\nOur educational system is a primary contributor to this problem. It heavily emphasizes rote memorization and theoretical knowledge over practical application, critical thinking, and problem-solving. Students are trained to pass exams, not to question, experiment, or invent. This creates a workforce that is skilled at following instructions but ill-equipped to innovate. Consequently, thousands of ambitious young people leave the country each year in search of an education that values research and creativity.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, our society often has a low tolerance for risk and failure, both of which are integral to the innovation process. Young people are typically encouraged to pursue secure, conventional career paths rather than venture into entrepreneurship or research, where the outcomes are uncertain. Without a cultural mindset that celebrates experimentation and views failure as a learning opportunity, the creative potential of our youth will continue to be suppressed, hindering Nepal\'s overall progress.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. What qualities does an individual need to become an entrepreneur?\r\n\r\nBecoming a successful entrepreneur requires a unique combination of personal qualities and professional skills that go far beyond simply having a good idea. These attributes enable an individual to navigate the high-risk, high-reward world of building a business from the ground up.\r\n\r\n* **Vision**: An entrepreneur must be able to see opportunities that others miss. This involves not only identifying a gap in the market but also having a clear and compelling vision for how to fill it and what the future of the enterprise will look like.\r\n* **Perseverance**: The path of entrepreneurship is fraught with setbacks and failures. A crucial quality is the resilience to persist in the face of obstacles, learn from mistakes, and maintain motivation when challenges arise.\r\n* **Discipline**: As their own boss, an entrepreneur must possess immense self-discipline. This includes managing time effectively, staying focused on long-term goals, and maintaining a rigorous work ethic without external oversight.\r\n* **Risk Tolerance**: Entrepreneurship is inherently risky. A successful entrepreneur must be comfortable with uncertainty and be able to make calculated risks, weighing potential rewards against potential losses.\r\n* **Adaptability**: Markets and technologies change rapidly. An entrepreneur needs to be flexible and adaptable, willing to pivot their strategy, embrace new ideas, and respond effectively to unforeseen challenges and opportunities.\r\n* **Passion**: A deep and genuine passion for their work is the fuel that sustains an entrepreneur through the long hours and difficult periods. This passion is also contagious, helping to inspire employees, investors, and customers.\r\n\r\nWhile a creative idea is the starting point, it is this combination of vision, resilience, discipline, and passion that ultimately distinguishes a successful entrepreneur.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: Present Perfect vs. Past Simple; *been* vs. *gone*\r\n\r\n### E. Use the Correct Tense of the Verbs\r\n\r\na. I don’t know where Muna is. **Have you seen** her?\r\nb. Janak **wasn’t** very well last week.\r\nc. Last night I **lost** my keys. So I stayed at my friend’s home.\r\nd. I **have lost** my keys. Can you help me look for them?\r\ne. I **have known** Jamuna for three years. We still meet once a month.\r\nf. She **lived** in Sikkim when she was a child.\r\ng. A: What’s wrong?\r\n   B: I **have broken** a glass.\r\nh. A: When **did you arrive**?\r\n   B: At 10 pm last night.\r\ni. How long **have you known** Sarmila?\r\nj. This is the first time I **have driven** a car.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### F. Use *been* or *gone*\r\n\r\na. I’ve never **been** to Japan.\r\nb. Kalpana has **gone** to Korea. She may come back next year.\r\nc. A: Where’s Rachana?\r\n   B: She has **gone** to the shops.\r\nd. Harina was here earlier but I think she has **gone** now.\r\ne. Have you ever **been** to London?', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(41, 1415, '# Chapter Notes: Power and Politics\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and themes presented in the chapter \"Power and Politics,\" with a focus on Audre Lorde\'s \"An Open Letter to Mary Daly.\"\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Working with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Vocabulary Definitions\r\n\r\n* **reluctance**: Unwillingness or disinclination to do something.\r\n* **repressive**: Preventing the expression or awareness of thoughts or desires.\r\n* **mutilation**: The infliction of serious damage on something.\r\n* **ghettoized**: Restricted to an isolated or segregated place, group, or situation.\r\n* **herstory**: History viewed from a female or specifically feminist perspective.\r\n* **genital**: Relating to the human or animal reproductive organs.\r\n* **hysterectomies**: Surgical operations to remove all or part of the uterus.\r\n* **paranoid**: Unreasonably or obsessively anxious, suspicious, or mistrustful.\r\n* **eventuation**: A final outcome or result.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Word Formation Chart\r\n\r\n| Verb | Noun | Adjective |\r\n| :--- | :--- | :--- |\r\n| commit | commitment | committed |\r\n| nurture | nurturance | nurturable |\r\n| **legitimize** | **legitimization** | **legitimate** |\r\n| oppress | oppression | oppressive |\r\n| **defend** | **defense** | **defensive** |\r\n| victimize | victimization | victimized |\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Definitions of Key Terms\r\n\r\n* **Racism**: The belief that different races possess distinct characteristics, abilities, or qualities, especially so as to distinguish them as inferior or superior to one another, often institutionalized into a system of prejudice and discrimination.\r\n* **Lesbian**: A woman who is homosexual; a gay woman.\r\n* **Radical**: Advocating for thorough or complete political or social change; representing a fundamental part of the nature of someone or something.\r\n* **Feminist**: Relating to or supporting feminism, the advocacy of women\'s rights on the basis of the equality of the sexes.\r\n* **Patriarchy**: A system of society or government in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### D. Consonant Clusters\r\n\r\n*a.* **Fl**u**ff**y we**nt** **fl**i**p**-**fl**o**p** a**ll** over the **fl**oor.\r\n*b.* The whi**tes** **s**i**ng** a **s**o**ng** abou**t** the **str**iki**ng** **st**a**rs**.\r\n*c.* Here are some **fl**owe**rs** a**nd** a **fl**a**sk** of tea of your favouri**t**e **fl**avou**r**.\r\n*d.* **Sm**i**t**a **f**e**ll** i**ll** wi**th** **fl**u.\r\n*e.* My **fr**ie**nd** is **fr**igh**t**e**n**e**d** of **fr**o**gs**.\r\n*f.* **Th**u**mb**elina **st**u**mb**le**d** ou**t** of the **gr**ee**n** bu**sh**.\r\n*g.* She hea**rd** a ru**mb**le a**nd** a **cr**y.\r\n*h.* ‘**Cl**i**mb** u**p**’, sai**d** **T**o**m**.\r\n*i.* **Fr**eedo**m** nee**ds** to be **str**ive**d** fo**r**.\r\n*j.* **Ch**i**ldr**e**n** were mu**nch**i**ng** **cr**u**nch**y **Fr**e**nch** **fr**ie**s**.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. Why does Audre Lorde think that Mary Daly got a sort of victory in the University of Boston?**\r\nLorde refers to a \"speak-out\" Daly was attending, suggesting that the presence of so many women represented a potential victory—a \"show of joined power.\" However, Lorde\'s point is critical: she believes this potential is undermined by Daly\'s exclusionary work, which prevents true solidarity among all women.\r\n\r\n**b. Why is Lorde thankful to Mary Daly?**\r\nLorde is thankful because Daly\'s book, *Gyn/Ecology*, was \"full of import, useful, generative, and provoking.\" Despite her profound disagreements with it, Lorde found the book strengthening and important enough to engage with on a deep, critical level.\r\n\r\n**c. What impression has the writer had about the way white women looked upon black women?**\r\nLorde\'s impression is that white feminists, as represented by Daly, have historically been unable or unwilling to hear Black women\'s words or engage in meaningful dialogue. She describes this as a \"long and discouraging\" history of white women failing to acknowledge the unique experiences and theoretical contributions of Black women.\r\n\r\n**d. Why did Mary Daly not cast black women as goddesses in her book, according to Lorde?**\r\nLorde states that Daly made a conscious decision to limit her book\'s scope to the mythology of Western European women. However, Lorde critically questions this decision, arguing that it results in a narrow and exclusionary portrayal of female power.\r\n\r\n**e. Why did Lorde think that she was misused by Mary Daly?**\r\nLorde felt misused because she believed Daly took her words out of their original context and used them to support arguments against other women of color. Lorde felt her own work was being used as a weapon against the very communities she sought to empower.\r\n\r\n**f. For Lorde, how were women, especially from the black community, undervalued?**\r\nFor Lorde, Black women were undervalued by being \"ghettoized\" and treated as peripheral within a feminist framework that centered on a patriarchal Western European perspective. Their rich histories and mythologies were ignored or used merely as decorative examples of female victimization, rather than as sources of power and theory.\r\n\r\n**g. How does Mary Daly take white women as? Does Lorde agree with Mary’s view?**\r\nLorde argues that Mary Daly\'s work implicitly positions the history and mythology of white European women as the universal and sole \"herstory\" for all women. It assumes that non-white women\'s experiences are only noteworthy as decorative examples or as instances of suffering. No, Lorde vehemently disagrees with this view, critiquing it as a form of racist supremacy that ignores the power, pain, and unique traditions of Black women and other women of color.\r\n\r\n**h. What is Afrekete? How does it connect to this lesson?**\r\nAfrekete is an African goddess, a figure of strength and power from the Dahomeyan tradition. Lorde invokes her name to symbolize the rich, non-European mythologies and sources of female power that Daly\'s Eurocentric work completely ignores. Afrekete represents the heritage that Black women can and should draw upon, connecting the lesson to the urgent need for a more inclusive and non-racist feminism.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. \"The oppression of women knows no ethnic or racial boundaries.\" Do you agree or not?\r\n\r\nI completely agree with the statement. While the specific forms and intensity of oppression may vary across cultures, the fundamental system of patriarchy and the resulting subjugation of women are a near-universal phenomenon. This reality transcends ethnic, racial, and national boundaries, creating a shared, global experience of gender-based inequality.\r\n\r\nFor instance, women in Western corporate environments may fight for equal pay and against glass ceilings, while women in other parts of the world may be fighting for the basic right to education or to be free from forced marriage. A woman in one country might face street harassment, while another faces the threat of \"honor killings.\" Despite these differences in context, the underlying cause is the same: a societal structure that devalues women and systematically grants more power and privilege to men. Gender-based violence, economic disparity, political underrepresentation, and the burden of domestic labor are challenges faced by women everywhere. This is not to say that all women\'s experiences are identical—race and class create different layers of oppression—but to acknowledge that the foundational struggle against patriarchy is a common thread that unites women across the globe.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. Why is it important to question our beliefs and values? How are they formed?\r\n\r\nQuestioning our own beliefs and values is a fundamental requirement for intellectual honesty, personal growth, and a tolerant society. Beliefs are often formed not through rigorous logical deduction, but through cultural osmosis—absorbed from our family, community, education, and media. They become the mental framework through which we interpret the world, often operating at a subconscious level. To never question them is to risk living an unexamined life, guided by unverified assumptions and potential prejudices.\r\n\r\nThe process of questioning our beliefs forces us to move from passive acceptance to active understanding. It compels us to seek evidence, consider alternative perspectives, and identify inconsistencies in our own logic. This can be an uncomfortable process, as it may reveal that some of our most cherished beliefs are unfounded. However, it is also empowering. If a belief withstands scrutiny, it becomes stronger and more authentically our own. If it does not, we are given the opportunity to discard it and adopt a more accurate and compassionate worldview. This fosters intellectual humility, strengthens character, and is the very engine of both individual and societal progress.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Writing\r\n\r\n### B. Article: \"The Status of Women in Nepali Society\"\r\n\r\n**The Unfinished Journey: Examining the Status of Women in Nepali Society**\r\n\r\nNepal, a nation of remarkable geographic and cultural diversity, remains a society largely governed by patriarchal norms. For generations, a woman\'s life has been traditionally defined by her relationship to men—first her father, then her husband, and finally her son. While recent legal and social reforms have challenged this structure, the journey towards genuine gender equality is far from complete.\r\n\r\nSignificant disparities persist in key areas of life. In health, Nepal\'s indicators for women are among the lowest in South Asia. The prevalence of child marriage, particularly in rural areas, leads to premature pregnancies and a high maternal mortality rate. Access to healthcare remains a challenge for many women, whose well-being is often considered secondary to that of male family members.\r\n\r\nIn education, despite progress, a substantial gender gap remains. The national female literacy rate continues to lag significantly behind that of males, and female enrollment in higher and technical education is disproportionately low. This disparity is fueled by the cultural view of daughters as \"paraya dhan\" (someone else\'s property), leading many families to prioritize their sons\' education over their daughters\'.\r\n\r\nEconomically, the contribution of women is immense but largely invisible. A vast portion of their work in agriculture and household management is unpaid and not classified as an \"economic activity.\" Consequently, their participation in the formal workforce is much lower than men\'s, and they are severely underrepresented in professional and leadership roles.\r\n\r\nWhile constitutional guarantees for women\'s rights are a vital step forward, deep-seated patriarchal values continue to hinder progress. Achieving true gender equality in Nepal will require not only legal enforcement but a profound cultural shift that recognizes and values women as equal and indispensable contributors to the nation\'s future.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: Adjective Order\r\n\r\n### B. Choose the Correct Alternative\r\n\r\na. **an old foreign** car\r\nb. **a beautiful white** dress\r\nc. **a nice tall young** man\r\nd. **a big black wooden** desk\r\ne. **a delicious Italian** pizza\r\nf. **a huge brown** bear\r\ng. **a purple cotton sleeping** bag\r\nh. **a beautiful old Indian** village\r\ni. **a cute little** kitten\r\nj. **an expensive antique** table\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Put the Adjectives in the Correct Order\r\n\r\na. I bought **a comfortable new red** scooter.\r\nb. She reached home and sat on **her relaxing old wooden** chair.\r\nc. We ate **some delicious Chinese** food.\r\nd. I need **some delicious round golden** apples.\r\ne. We like to live in **a calm, remote, unmediated** place for some time.\r\nf. She is wearing **a beautiful old silver** ring.\r\ng. I am looking for **a stylish golden Japanese** watch.\r\nh. She dropped **an attractive old China** cup and smashed it.\r\ni. He wants to marry **a pretty, young, educated, rustic** girl.\r\nj. We stayed in **a new, luxurious, five-star** hotel in Dubai.', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(42, 1416, '# Chapter Notes: War and Peace\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and themes from the excerpt of Khushwant Singh\'s novel \"Train to Pakistan,\" as presented in the chapter \"War and Peace.\"\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Working with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Vocabulary Meanings\r\n\r\n* **clamour**: A loud and confused noise, especially that of people shouting.\r\n* **precariously**: In a way that is not securely in position and is likely to fall or collapse.\r\n* **scrutiny**: Critical observation or examination.\r\n* **absconded**: To have left hurriedly and secretly, typically to avoid detection of or arrest for an unlawful act.\r\n* **anglicized**: Made English in form or character.\r\n* **platitudes**: Remarks or statements, especially one with a moral content, that have been used too often to be interesting or thoughtful; clichés.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Words Borrowed from Hindi\r\n\r\n| Word | Meaning |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| **Veranda** | A roofed platform along the outside of a house, level with the ground floor. |\r\n| **Khaki** | A sturdy cotton or wool fabric of a dull brownish-yellow color, used for military uniforms. |\r\n| **Pashmina** | A fine-quality goat\'s wool, and the shawls made from it. |\r\n| **Pajamas** | Loose-fitting trousers and a jacket, worn for sleeping. |\r\n| **Pukka** | Genuine; authentic; of good quality. |\r\n| **Pundit** | An expert in a particular subject who is frequently called upon to give opinions. |\r\n| **Avatar** | A manifestation or incarnation of a deity in bodily form on earth. |\r\n| **Bangle** | A rigid bracelet or anklet. |\r\n| **Cheetah** | A large, slender spotted cat found in Africa and parts of Asia. |\r\n| **Guru** | A spiritual teacher, especially in Hinduism or Sikhism. |\r\n| **Jungle** | An area of land overgrown with dense forest and tangled vegetation. |\r\n| **Karma** | The sum of a person\'s actions in this and previous states of existence, viewed as deciding their fate. |\r\n| **Nirvana** | In Buddhism, a transcendent state in which there is neither suffering, desire, nor sense of self. |\r\n| **Shampoo** | A liquid preparation for washing the hair. |\r\n| **Raita** | An Indian side dish of yogurt containing chopped cucumber or other vegetables, and spices. |\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Suffixes and Spelling Changes\r\n\r\n* **change**: changeable, changing, changed, changeless\r\n* **time**: timely, timing, timed, timeless\r\n* **notice**: **noticeable**, noticing, noticed\r\n* **praise**: praiseworthy, praising, praised\r\n* **home**: homeless, homing, homely\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. Why did Iqbal want to sleep in the afternoon?**\r\nIqbal wanted to sleep in the afternoon because he was exhausted after spending the entire previous night awake, sitting uncomfortably on his bedroll in a crowded, noisy third-class train compartment.\r\n\r\n**b. How did people react with each other in the train?**\r\nThe people in the train reacted with a loud and chaotic energy. The compartment was filled with a clamour of voices, bickering, and the sounds of people eating and drinking, creating a restless and overwhelming environment.\r\n\r\n**c. Why did the book Iqbal was reading bring commotion in the compartment?**\r\nIqbal\'s book caused a commotion because it was in English. In the context of a third-class railway compartment in rural India, his ability to read English immediately marked him as an educated, westernized outsider—a \"Babu Sahib\"—prompting curiosity and scrutiny from the other travelers.\r\n\r\n**d. Why did Iqbal have to give clarification with his personal details?**\r\nThe other travelers perceived him as a wise and important person due to his English book and sophisticated appearance. Their curiosity and insistence compelled Iqbal to give a clarification about his background and purpose for being there to satisfy their questions.\r\n\r\n**e. Who was Meet Singh and what did he report to Iqbal?**\r\nMeet Singh was the priest of the local Gurdwara (Sikh temple). He reported to Iqbal that Ram Lal, the village moneylender, had been murdered the previous night, and that the village dacoit, Juggut \"Jugga\" Singh, was the primary suspect.\r\n\r\n**f. How, according to Meet Singh, was Jugga Singh different from his forefathers?**\r\nAccording to Meet Singh, Jugga Singh was different because he lacked the code of honor that his dacoit forefathers had. While his ancestors were also outlaws, they never robbed or harmed people within their own village. In contrast, Jugga had violated this code by allegedly murdering a fellow villager.\r\n\r\n**g. How does the author show contradiction in Meet Singh\'s character?**\r\nThe author reveals a contradiction in Meet Singh\'s character through his attitude towards the murder. Despite being a religious leader, he seems untroubled by the crime itself and expresses a willingness to lie under oath on the holy Granth to protect Jugga, a known criminal, demonstrating that his village loyalties supersede his moral and religious duties.\r\n\r\n**h. Who was Hukum Chand and how did he succeed in his career?**\r\nHukum Chand was the Deputy Commissioner, a magistrate and district officer. He succeeded in his career not through brilliance, but through obsequiousness and cunning, pleasing his British superiors (\"Sahibs\") to gain promotions and rise through the ranks of the civil service.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. Iqbal is addressed as Babu Sahib by general folk simply because he knew English. Are Nepali people who can speak English taken with respect?\r\n\r\nYes, in the Nepali context, fluency in English is often perceived with a degree of respect and is frequently equated with higher education, sophistication, and social status. Much like the scenario in the text, English in Nepal is not just a language but a marker of class. An individual who speaks fluent English is often automatically assumed to be well-educated, modern, and from a privileged background. This perception can create a social advantage, opening doors in professional environments and commanding attention in social situations.\r\n\r\nThis phenomenon is a post-colonial legacy, where the language of a former global power remains associated with prestige and opportunity. While the ability to speak English is an immensely valuable skill for global communication and access to information, the societal tendency to judge a person\'s intelligence or worth based on their English fluency can be problematic. It can create an unfair social hierarchy and undervalue those who are highly knowledgeable but express themselves in their native tongue. Therefore, while learning English is undeniably important for Nepalis in a globalized world, the automatic deference shown to English speakers reflects a complex and lingering cultural bias.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. In your view, what should the state, society, and individuals do for peace and order?\r\n\r\nEstablishing and maintaining peace and order requires a concerted and collaborative effort from individuals, society, and the state, as each plays a distinct but interconnected role.\r\n\r\n* **The Individual**: Peace begins at the individual level. Each person has a responsibility to cultivate values of empathy, tolerance, and non-violence. This involves resolving personal conflicts peacefully, respecting the rights and perspectives of others, and refusing to participate in acts of prejudice or aggression. Individuals must also be active citizens, holding themselves and their leaders accountable for creating a just society.\r\n\r\n* **The Society**: Society, through its community structures, educational institutions, and cultural norms, must reinforce a culture of peace. Families and schools should educate children about conflict resolution and mutual respect. Communities can create platforms for dialogue to address grievances before they escalate. Civil society organizations play a crucial role in monitoring justice, advocating for human rights, and building bridges between different groups.\r\n\r\n* **The State**: The state holds the ultimate responsibility for maintaining order through a just and effective legal framework. This involves establishing an impartial police force and judiciary to ensure that laws are applied equally to all citizens. The state must address the root causes of conflict, such as poverty, inequality, and discrimination, through fair social and economic policies. Furthermore, it must protect fundamental human rights and provide security for all its citizens, ensuring that the state itself does not become a source of violence and oppression.\r\n\r\nUltimately, these three pillars are interdependent. A peaceful society cannot exist without just laws, just as a just state cannot function without the active participation of peaceful and responsible citizens.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Writing\r\n\r\n### A. Describe a \"Badmash\"\r\n\r\nIn every neighborhood, there seems to be one individual who lives by their own rules, and in ours, that person was a young man named Rakesh. He wasn\'t overtly malicious, but he carried an air of reckless defiance that everyone recognized. Rakesh was a \"badmash\" in the classic sense—a troublemaker who seemed to thrive on minor chaos. He would ride his motorcycle at high speeds through the narrow lanes, his laughter echoing long after he had passed. He was known for getting into loud arguments that seemed to resolve as quickly as they began and for a general disregard for any rule he found inconvenient. Yet, there was a strange charisma about him. He was fiercely loyal to his friends and would be the first to help an elder carry their groceries. His character was a paradox: a source of constant frustration for the community, yet an undeniable part of its fabric.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Letter Describing an Unforgettable Journey\r\n\r\nJanuary 28, 2025\r\nPokhara-7, Kaski\r\n\r\nDear Pratik,\r\n\r\nI hope this letter finds you well. I\'m writing because I have to tell you about an unforgettable bus journey I took to my hometown in Sankhuwasabha last month. It was one of those experiences that reminds you of the simple joys of travel.\r\n\r\nI boarded the bus at the crack of dawn, and the journey itself lasted the entire day. I was lucky enough to get a window seat, and for the next twelve hours, I was treated to the most incredible, ever-changing scenery. As we wound our way up through the hills, the view from the window was mesmerizing; lush green trees seemed to rush past, and every so often, a stunning waterfall would appear by the side of the road. The fresh, cool air coming through the window was more refreshing than any air conditioner.\r\n\r\nThe atmosphere inside the bus was just as memorable. The other passengers were incredibly friendly, and soon enough, a group of us were passing the time playing cards and sharing stories. The long hours just flew by. It was a simple journey, but it was filled with a sense of peace and camaraderie that I hadn\'t expected.\r\n\r\nIt was a powerful reminder that sometimes the journey itself is just as important as the destination. I\'m already thinking about my next trip, and I’ll definitely be asking you to join me.\r\n\r\nUntil then, take care.\r\n\r\nMuch love,\r\nAayusha Sharma\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: Past Tenses\r\n\r\n### C. Fill in the Gaps with the Correct Verb Form\r\n\r\nIt was Sunday afternoon. I **was watching** a cookery programme on TV when I **realised** how hungry I was. But of course, I was hungry; I **hadn\'t eaten** anything since lunch, and I **had run** a race in the morning. \"Biscuits!\" I **thought**. My mother **had given** me a jar of delicious home-made biscuits.\r\n\r\nI **went** into the kitchen, **opened** the fridge and **poured** some milk in a big glass. Then I **looked** for the kitchen chair but it **wasn\'t** there: somebody **had taken** it away. And there were no biscuits in the biscuit jar: somebody **had eaten** them all! I was sure I **had put** the jar there the previous day and I **had eaten** only one cookie. It was very strange.\r\n\r\nA few minutes later, I **was drinking** my glass of milk when I **heard** a loud noise coming from the dining room. I **went** there quickly and I **opened** the door. I couldn\'t believe my eyes. An enormous monkey **was eating** the biscuits excitedly on the kitchen chair.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### D. Rewrite the Sentences Correcting the Mistakes\r\n\r\na. *Incorrect*: She played the flute and then she had sung in their choir.\r\n   * *Correct*: She **played** the flute and then she **sang** in their choir.\r\nb. *Correct*: I borrowed Rima’s car. Did you know about it?\r\nc. *Incorrect*: After the lesson had finished, we run out of school.\r\n   * *Correct*: After the lesson **had finished**, we **ran** out of school.\r\nd. *Correct*: Had you been there? - Yes, the previous year.\r\ne. *Incorrect*: Did you liked my article published in the Himalayan Times yesterday?\r\n   * *Correct*: Did you **like** my article published in the Himalayan Times yesterday?\r\nf. *Incorrect*: I recognized him because I saw him before.\r\n   * *Correct*: I recognized him because I **had seen** him before.\r\ng. *Incorrect*: I hadn’t gone out because I hadn’t finished my homework.\r\n   * *Correct*: I **didn\'t go out** because I **hadn\'t finished** my homework.\r\nh. *Correct*: We did nothing like this at that time.\r\ni. *Incorrect*: It was quite difficult. I had had no idea what to do.\r\n   * *Correct*: It **was** quite difficult. I **had** no idea what to do.\r\nj. *Incorrect*: As far as I’d known, she had always had some pets.\r\n   * *Correct*: As far as I **knew**, she had always had some pets.\r\nk. *Incorrect*: When I met Jim, he was already a soldier for three years.\r\n   * *Correct*: When I met Jim, he **had already been** a soldier for three years.\r\nl. *Incorrect*: He had gone to the coffee because somebody had told him.\r\n   * *Correct*: He **went** to the coffee shop because somebody **had told** him to.', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(43, 1416, '# Chapter Notes: Critical Thinking\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and grammatical principles presented in the chapter \"Critical Thinking,\" with a focus on the excerpt from R.J. Palacio\'s \"Wonder.\"\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Working with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Vocabulary Definitions\r\n\r\n* **Shuffle**: Walking by dragging one\'s feet along or without lifting them fully from the ground.\r\n* **Doodle**: To draw pictures or patterns while thinking about something else.\r\n* **Plaque**: A piece of flat metal or other material, inscribed with writing, used as a monument or marker.\r\n* **Precepts**: General rules intended to regulate behavior or thought.\r\n* **Sneaky**: To move or go in a furtive or stealthy manner.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Definitions of Thinking Skills\r\n\r\n* **Convergent Thinking**: This is a logical and systematic thought process that focuses on finding a single, well-established, and correct answer to a problem. It is the type of thinking used to solve standard tests and puzzles where one specific solution exists.\r\n* **Divergent Thinking**: This is a creative and exploratory thought process used to generate a multitude of ideas or solutions to a problem. It involves brainstorming and making unexpected connections, valuing quantity and variety of ideas over a single correct answer.\r\n* **Critical Thinking**: This is the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue or information in order to form a rational judgment. It involves skepticism, logical reasoning, and the ability to identify biases and assess evidence.\r\n* **Creative Thinking**: This is the ability to conceive of something original or unusual. It involves looking at problems or situations from a fresh perspective and generating innovative solutions or ideas.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. Who was Jack? How did he make children laugh?**\r\nJack was a popular and well-liked student with many friends. He often made other children laugh by telling jokes and having a playful sense of humor.\r\n\r\n**b. Why are “Sharks” important to Reid?**\r\n\"Sharks\" are important to Reid because he understands their ecological role: they help keep the ocean clean by preying on dead or dying organisms, thus maintaining the health of the marine ecosystem.\r\n\r\n**c. What does Mr. Browne think about the most important thing?**\r\nMr. Browne believes the most important thing is to understand \"who we are.\" This refers to knowing and developing one\'s character, as he believes our deeds and choices are the \"monuments\" that define us.\r\n\r\n**d. What is it that has not been noticed by the student?**\r\nThe student narrator has not previously noticed the plaque above the school\'s front door which bears the precept, \"Know Thyself.\"\r\n\r\n**e. How did Jack make fun of the English class?**\r\nWhen the teacher, Mr. Browne, asked the rhetorical question, \"Why are you here?\", Jack made fun of the situation by giving a deadpan, literal answer: \"To learn English.\"\r\n\r\n**f. What were the students going to do at the end of the month?**\r\nAt the end of the month, the students were required to write an essay about one of Mr. Browne\'s precepts and their personal interpretation of it.\r\n\r\n**g. What particular act of students surprised a girl student?**\r\nA girl student was surprised to learn about the long-standing tradition where former students continue to mail their own personal precepts to Mr. Browne on postcards, even long after they have graduated.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. Have you made your own precept after you read this lesson?\r\n\r\nYes, this lesson inspires one to reflect on the guiding principles for one\'s life. A precept I find meaningful is: **\"Be the person you needed when you were younger.\"**\r\n\r\nThis precept serves as a constant reminder to act with empathy, kindness, and integrity. It encourages me to offer the support, guidance, and understanding to others that I might have found valuable during my own challenging times. It\'s a call to be a positive force in the world by actively providing the encouragement and compassion that can help someone else on their journey. It transforms past difficulties into a motivation for future kindness.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. \"If there was one life skill everyone on the planet needed, it was the ability to think with critical objectivity.\" Justify this statement.\r\n\r\nJosh Lanyon\'s statement is a powerful assertion that I believe is entirely justifiable. Critical objectivity—the ability to analyze information based on evidence while setting aside personal biases, emotions, and preconceived notions—is arguably the most essential skill for navigating the complexities of the modern world.\r\n\r\nIn an age of constant information overload and widespread misinformation, critical objectivity is our primary defense against manipulation. It allows us to distinguish credible sources from propaganda, to evaluate political promises rationally, and to make informed decisions about our health, finances, and civic duties. Without this skill, we are susceptible to being swayed by emotional appeals and deceptive rhetoric, which can have dire consequences for both individuals and society.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, critical objectivity is the bedrock of problem-solving and innovation. It enables scientists, engineers, and leaders to assess situations accurately, identify the true root of a problem, and develop effective solutions. On a personal level, it allows us to reflect honestly on our own mistakes and learn from them. It is the skill that fosters intellectual humility, promotes fair-mindedness, and ultimately empowers us to build a more rational and just world.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Writing\r\n\r\n### Write an email to your friend explaining an interesting class you had.\r\n\r\n**From**: binodkumar12@gmail.com\r\n**To**: shristi2011@gmail.com\r\n**Subject**: You won\'t believe my English class today!\r\n\r\nDear Shristi,\r\n\r\nI hope you\'re doing well.\r\n\r\nI had to write and tell you about my English class today—it was so interesting! Our teacher, Mr. Sharma, has this tradition where he gives us a \"precept\" or a rule about life each month. This month, it\'s \"Your deeds are your monuments.\"\r\n\r\nAt first, I thought it was just another boring quote, but the discussion we had was amazing. We talked about how the things we do—both big and small—are what people remember us for, not what we own or what we look like. It made me think a lot about what kind of \"monuments\" I\'m building with my own actions every day.\r\n\r\nIt wasn\'t a typical grammar or literature lecture; it was a real conversation about life and character. It’s definitely my favorite class this year. It makes me think differently about things.\r\n\r\nAnyway, just wanted to share. Let\'s catch up soon!\r\n\r\nBest,\r\nBinod\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: Question Tags\r\n\r\n### Rewrite the following sentences adding an appropriate question tag.\r\n\r\na. Gill does not know Ann, **does he?**\r\nb. I’m very patient, **aren\'t I?**\r\nc. They’d never met me before, **had they?**\r\nd. Listen carefully, **will you?**\r\ne. Let’s have a break, **shall we?**\r\nf. Let us invite them, **will you?**\r\ng. Hari used to live in France as a boy, **didn\'t he?**\r\nh. You’d better not take a hard drink, **had you?**\r\ni. Sheep eat grass, **don\'t they?**\r\nj. Mr. Pande can speak nine languages, **can\'t he?**\r\nk. She’s finished her classes, **hasn\'t she?**\r\nl. She barely managed to reach the goal, **did she?**\r\nm. Don’t let him swim in that pond, **will you?**\r\nn. There are lots of people here, **aren\'t there?**\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### Read the following situations. What do you say in these situations? Use question tags.\r\n\r\na. The sky is full of clouds. You can see lightning and hear thunder.\r\n   * **It’s going to rain soon, isn\'t it?**\r\nb. You want to pay the taxi fare but you are short by 100 rupees. (To a friend)\r\n   * **You can lend me Rs. 100, can\'t you?**\r\nc. You have met a stranger at a party and you want to have a chat with him/her.\r\n   * **It\'s a great party, isn\'t it?**\r\nd. You came out of the film hall with your friend. You enjoyed the film.\r\n   * **The film was very enjoyable, wasn\'t it?**\r\ne. You and your friend listened to a comedian on the stage and felt spellbound by his/her performance.\r\n   * **He gave an excellent performance, didn\'t he?**\r\nf. You think your friend’s father has arrived from the US but you are not sure.\r\n   * **Your father has arrived from the US, hasn\'t he?**\r\ng. You think Susan will join the new job tomorrow but you are not sure.\r\n   * **Susan will join the new job tomorrow, won\'t she?**\r\nh. Your friend’s hair looks too short.\r\n   * **Your hair is very short, isn\'t it?**\r\ni. You want to go for a picnic with your friends in class.\r\n   * **Let’s go for a picnic, shall we?**\r\nj. You want permission from your father to go for a walk.\r\n   * **Let me go for an evening walk, will you?**', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56');
INSERT INTO `course_notes_content` (`id`, `topic_id`, `content`, `markdown_format`, `created_at`, `updated_at`) VALUES
(44, 1417, '# Chapter Notes: Globalisation and Diaspora\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and grammatical principles presented in the chapter \"Globalisation and Diaspora.\"\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Ways with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Vocabulary Definitions\r\n\r\n* **ravage**: The severely damaging or destructive effects of something.\r\n* **refugee**: Someone forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster.\r\n* **confront**: To face up to and deal with a difficult situation.\r\n* **usurp**: To take a position of power or importance illegally or by force.\r\n* **assimilation**: The process of becoming a part of a group, country, society, etc.\r\n* **enclave**: An area within a larger territory whose inhabitants are culturally or ethnically distinct.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Fill in the Gaps\r\n\r\na. I asked him if he was attending the ceremony and he **shook** his head \'no\'.\r\nb. They made a horrible decision which caused **irreparable** damage to our company.\r\nc. The leaders need to break down **barriers** so as to create a favorable environment in the nation.\r\nd. You ought to talk to the manager to **settle** the dispute.\r\ne. Perhaps this issue will not get much media **coverage**.\r\nf. This week is the first week of Joan as an in-charge. Everything is running **smoothly**.\r\ng. I haven\'t read the text thoroughly, but I have given it a **quick** glance.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. Why did millions of Palestinians leave their country?**\r\nThe primary reason millions of Palestinians left their country was the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, which led to their mass displacement. They were forced to leave to escape violence and persecution, becoming refugees in neighboring countries and beyond.\r\n\r\n**b. How is the global culture formed? Is cultural identity possible even in the global culture? Justify.**\r\nGlobal culture is formed through the interconnectedness fostered by technology, media, and migration, particularly among younger generations who grow up with these influences. Yes, cultural identity is not only possible but can even be strengthened within this global culture. Globalization often heightens people\'s awareness of their own unique cultural heritage, leading them to actively preserve and celebrate their traditions as a way to maintain a distinct identity in an increasingly interconnected world.\r\n\r\n**c. Why can moving from one side of the world to the other be an economic challenge for newcomers?**\r\nMoving to a new country presents significant economic challenges because the integration process is neither immediate nor simple. Newcomers must invest considerable time and resources into learning a new language, adapting to different cultural norms, and navigating a new labor market, all of which can delay their ability to achieve financial stability.\r\n\r\n**d. How can immigrants foster the economy in their new homes?**\r\nImmigrants can foster the economy in numerous ways. They often start new businesses at a higher rate than the native-born population, creating jobs and innovation. They also fill critical labor shortages, pay taxes that contribute to public services, and increase consumer demand, thereby stimulating overall economic growth.\r\n\r\n**e. Can immigrants fully integrate into new societies? Give reasons.**\r\nFull integration for immigrants is a complex and often incomplete process. While many immigrants successfully adapt economically and socially, they can face persistent barriers from the host society, such as discrimination, cultural misunderstandings, and social exclusion, which may prevent them from feeling fully integrated.\r\n\r\n**f. Mention any two benefits of integrating into a new society for immigrants.**\r\nTwo key benefits for immigrants who integrate are:\r\n1.  Access to equal opportunities in education, employment, and civic engagement, which allows for personal and professional growth.\r\n2.  An enhanced sense of belonging and self-esteem, which contributes to overall well-being and mental health.\r\n\r\n**g. Why should immigrants run in concordance with global culture?**\r\nImmigrants should engage with the host country\'s culture because isolation can be more damaging than integration. Non-convergence can lead to social and economic marginalization, whereas adapting to and participating in the new culture provides access to opportunities and a more stable, connected life.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. \"The local is globalized and the global is localized.\" Can there be a global culture?\r\n\r\nThe concepts that \"the local is globalized and the global is localized\" accurately describe the dual nature of globalization.\r\n\r\n**How the Local Becomes Global**: This refers to the process by which local products, ideas, and cultural practices gain worldwide visibility and appeal. For example, Nepali momocha can be found in restaurants from New York to Sydney, yoga from India is practiced globally, and K-Pop from South Korea has become a worldwide phenomenon. Technology and migration have made it possible for local cultures to transcend their geographical origins.\r\n\r\n**How the Global Becomes Local**: This is the process of adapting global products or ideas to suit local tastes and contexts. For instance, a global fast-food chain like McDonald\'s offers a McSpicy Paneer Burger in India to cater to local vegetarian preferences. Similarly, international holidays like Valentine\'s Day are celebrated in Nepal, but often with unique local customs and interpretations.\r\n\r\nYes, a **global culture** can and does exist, but it is not a monolithic entity that erases local cultures. Instead, it is a shared layer of experiences, symbols, and practices. Examples include the worldwide popularity of football (soccer), the universal language of emojis and memes on the internet, the global fashion trends seen in major cities, and the widespread use of English as a lingua franca. This global culture coexists with, and is constantly interacting with, local traditions.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. What is globalization? Discuss its effects on traditional cultures.\r\n\r\nGlobalization can be defined as the intensified interconnectedness and interdependence of countries and peoples worldwide. It is driven by the rapid flow of goods, services, capital, people, and ideas across international borders, facilitated by advancements in technology and changes in global policies.\r\n\r\nThe effects of globalization on traditional cultures are profound and complex. On one hand, it can lead to cultural homogenization. The global dominance of Western media, consumer brands, and languages can erode unique local customs. For example, as cities develop, traditional agricultural festivals may decline in importance. As smartphones with texting become ubiquitous, the art of formal letter writing disappears. As family members consume media on individual screens, the tradition of communal storytelling or watching television together fades.\r\n\r\nOn the other hand, globalization can also lead to the strengthening and revitalization of traditional cultures. Faced with an influx of global influences, many communities become more determined to preserve their unique identity. This can lead to a resurgence of interest in local languages, traditional crafts, and religious ceremonies. Technology itself can be a tool for cultural preservation, allowing traditions to be documented and shared with a global audience. Therefore, while globalization inevitably changes certain behaviors and practices, the core elements of a culture often adapt and persist, leading to a dynamic blend of the traditional and the modern.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### c. The impacts of globalization on education in Nepal.\r\n\r\nGlobalization has had a transformative impact on the process and progress of education in Nepal, bringing both significant opportunities and notable challenges.\r\n\r\n**Positive Impacts**:\r\n1.  **Improved Quality and Access**: Globalization has exposed Nepal to international educational standards and best practices, leading to curriculum reforms and the adoption of modern pedagogical methods like e-learning and blended learning.\r\n2.  **International Collaboration**: The establishment of foreign university affiliates in Nepal has provided students with access to high-quality international degrees without having to leave the country. Foreign investment has also helped improve educational infrastructure.\r\n3.  **Development of Global Citizenship**: Education has become more outward-looking, enabling students to develop an understanding of different cultures and global issues, which is essential for navigating an interconnected world.\r\n\r\n**Challenges**:\r\n1.  **Brain Drain**: While globalization provides opportunities to study abroad, it has also exacerbated the \"brain drain,\" with many of the brightest students choosing to remain overseas after graduation, depriving Nepal of their skills.\r\n2.  **Increased Inequality**: The benefits of globalized education are not distributed evenly. High-quality private institutions and international programs are often only accessible to the wealthy and urban populations, widening the educational gap between the rich and poor, and urban and rural areas.\r\n3.  **Erosion of Local Knowledge**: A focus on international curricula can sometimes lead to the devaluation of indigenous knowledge systems and local languages.\r\n\r\nIn conclusion, while globalization has been a powerful catalyst for modernizing Nepal\'s education system, a key challenge remains in ensuring that its benefits are equitable and that its progress does not come at the expense of national talent and cultural heritage.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Writing\r\n\r\n### Write a news story about a local festival.\r\n\r\n**Dashain Fervor Shifts with the Times in Kathmandu**\r\n\r\n**KATHMANDU, Oct. 26** – As the Dashain festival reaches its peak with families across the nation gathering for Tika, the celebration in the capital reflects a noticeable shift in both style and sentiment. While the core traditions remain, many residents say the grand festival, once anticipated for months, is evolving in the face of modern lifestyles.\r\n\r\n\"Dashain used to be about the kites in the sky and the large bamboo swings, or *pings*, in every open field,\" recalls 72-year-old Hari Sharma from Baneshwor. \"It was the one time of year we were guaranteed new clothes and a feast of meat. Now, these things are common, and the excitement feels different.\"\r\n\r\nThis sentiment is echoed by many. The once-ubiquitous sight of kites battling in the autumn sky has become a rarity, and the communal swings are harder to find amidst the city\'s rapid urbanization. For younger generations, the novelty of new clothes or special meals has diminished in an era of consumerism and readily available luxuries.\r\n\r\n\"We still get together with family, which is the most important part,\" says 28-year-old Anjali KC. \"But the focus has changed. Before, it was about creating memories. Now, it often feels more about capturing moments for social media.\"\r\n\r\nDespite these changes, the essence of Dashain—family reunion and the receiving of blessings from elders—continues to be the festival\'s anchor. Streets in Kathmandu are noticeably quieter as many have traveled to their ancestral homes, and the joy of Tika and family feasts remains a cherished tradition. The festival, it seems, is not waning, but rather adapting to a new generation and a different time.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: *wh-* Clauses and Infinitive Constructions\r\n\r\n### B. Complete Each Sentence\r\n\r\na. Do you know **how to get** to Rama’s house?\r\nb. I don’t know **whether to apply** for the job or not.\r\nc. Have you decided **where to go** for your picnic?\r\nd. Can you show me **how to use** this camera?\r\ne. Ask Hari. He’ll tell you **what to do**.\r\nf. I was really astonished. I didn’t know **what to say**.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Paraphrase the Following Sentences\r\n\r\na. Mahesh forgets to close the windows. (tend)\r\n   * **Mahesh tends to forget to close the windows.**\r\nb. Your car has broken down. (appear)\r\n   * **Your car appears to have broken down.**\r\nc. Ashika is worried about her exam. (seem)\r\n   * **Ashika seems to be worried about her exam.**\r\nd. They have developed the theory. (claim)\r\n   * **They claim to have developed the theory.**\r\ne. He’s enjoying his new job. (pretend)\r\n   * **He pretends to enjoy his new job.**', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(45, 1418, '# Chapter Notes: Immigration and Identity\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts and vocabulary presented in the chapter \"Immigration and Identity,\" with a focus on the review of V.S. Naipaul\'s novel \"Half a Life.\"\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Ways with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Crossword Puzzle Solutions\r\n\r\n**Across**\r\n2. **inevitably**: As is certain to happen.\r\n4. **eminent**: Famous and respected.\r\n6. **sojourn**: A temporary stay.\r\n7. **omniscient**: Knowing everything.\r\n\r\n**Down**\r\n1. **preoccupation**: The state of being absorbed in something.\r\n3. **apprehensive**: Anxious or fearful that something bad will happen.\r\n5. **mulatto**: A person of mixed white and Black ancestry.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Vocabulary Definitions\r\n\r\n* **melancholy**: A deep and persistent feeling of sadness, often with no obvious cause.\r\n* **elusive**: Difficult to find, define, or achieve.\r\n* **motif**: A recurring subject, theme, or idea in a work of literature or art.\r\n* **disdain**: The feeling that someone or something is unworthy of one\'s consideration or respect.\r\n* **fabricate**: To invent something false in order to deceive someone.\r\n* **intoxicate**: To cause someone to lose control of their faculties or behavior.\r\n* **resentment**: A feeling of bitterness or indignation about something that you think is unfair.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### D. Homophones\r\n\r\na. Can you **bury** the box in the back garden? (bury/berry)\r\nb. Alex could not **break** the branch off the tree. (break/brake)\r\nc. **Whose** pencil is on the floor? (Who\'s/Whose)\r\nd. We have got very **few** tasks left. (phew/few)\r\ne. Some tribes worship their gods and **pray** for a good harvest. (prey/pray)\r\nf. **Damn** it! Everything is messed up. (Dam /Damn)\r\ng. What a wonderful **lesson** the professor presented. (lesson/lessen)\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. How is Willie Chandran different from the rest of his family?**\r\nWillie Chandran is different because he is plagued by a profound sense of insecurity about his own identity, a feeling not shared by the rest of his family. This internal conflict stems from his mixed-caste heritage and shapes his entire life.\r\n\r\n**b. Who is the main character of *Half A Life*? How is he described?**\r\nThe main character is Willie Chandran. He is described as a man of Indian origin, born four decades prior to the start of the novel, to a high-caste Brahmin father and a low-caste mother. His full name, Willie Somerset Chandran, was inspired by the English writer Somerset Maugham.\r\n\r\n**c. Why does Willie leave India?**\r\nWillie leaves India to escape the identity crisis imposed upon him by the rigid caste system. As the child of a mixed-caste marriage, he feels he has no place or identity in India. Fueled by resentment towards his father, he secures a scholarship to a college in London to start a new life.\r\n\r\n**d. What is the revelation that Willie begins to feel in college and in London?**\r\nIn the relative anonymity of London, Willie has the revelation that he is free from the social constraints of India. He realizes that he can remake himself, fabricate a new past and ancestry, and create an identity of his own choosing.\r\n\r\n**e. Why does Willie accompany Ana?**\r\nWillie accompanies Ana to her home in a Portuguese colony in Africa because he is drawn to the ready-made identity she and her world offer. He believes that by entering her high-status, mixed-race colonial society, he might finally find the complete acceptance and sense of belonging that has always eluded him.\r\n\r\n**f. What is the central issue Naipaul has raised in the novel?**\r\nThe central issue Naipaul raises in the novel is the crisis of identity in a postcolonial world, particularly for individuals of mixed heritage who feel displaced and disconnected from any single culture or ethnicity.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. What kind of divided identity is depicted in the novel \'Half a Life\'?\r\n\r\nThe novel *Half a Life* depicts a profound sense of \"divided\" or \"half\" identity, born from the dislocations of colonialism and mixed racial heritage. The characters are perpetually caught between worlds, belonging fully to none.\r\n\r\n* **Willie Chandran** embodies this crisis most acutely. His identity is split by his parentage—a high-caste Brahmin father and a low-caste mother. In India, this makes him an outsider. He flees to London, hoping to invent a whole new identity, only to find himself performing a role. He then follows Ana to Africa, seeking to be absorbed into her world, but remains an observer. His life is a series of \"half\" existences, never fully integrated or authentic.\r\n* **Ana**, from a Portuguese African colony, shares a similar division. Her mixed Portuguese and African ancestry places her in a precarious social position. She seeks an identity in the bohemian world of London but ultimately returns to her home, suggesting a realization that even a compromised identity at home is more whole than an artificial one abroad.\r\n* The **illegitimate man** Willie meets in Africa represents the most tragic form of this divided identity. Born to a Portuguese landowner and an African mother, he is legally and socially a non-entity, abused and rejected by the Portuguese community, yet disconnected from his African heritage.\r\n\r\nThese characters attempt to create new identities by migrating, fabricating stories, and attaching themselves to others, but the novel suggests that these attempts are often futile, leaving them in a state of perpetual alienation.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. Discuss the similarities between the author and the protagonist in the novel.\r\n\r\nThe parallels between the author, V.S. Naipaul, and the protagonist, Willie Chandran, are so striking that the novel often reads like a fictionalized autobiography. Both men\'s lives are defined by themes of displacement, education abroad, and the pursuit of identity through writing.\r\n\r\nBoth Naipaul and Willie are of Indian descent and grew up in societies outside of mainland India (Trinidad and an unnamed Indian setting, respectively). A pivotal moment for both is leaving their home country at the age of eighteen on a scholarship to study at a university in England. This shared experience of being an outsider in the colonial heartland becomes a central theme in their lives.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, both characters turn to writing as a means of understanding and creating their identity. Willie publishes a book of stories while in London, briefly pursuing a literary life, which is a direct reflection of Naipaul\'s own career path. Naipaul, after studying at Oxford, famously found his voice and purpose as a writer, using his pen to explore the very themes of displacement and identity that plague his fictional counterpart. The novel ends with Willie in a foreign country, much like Naipaul, who ultimately settled in England. It is clear that Naipaul drew heavily on the architecture of his own life to construct a powerful and compelling narrative about the search for self in a postcolonial world.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Writing\r\n\r\n### B. Book Review: *The Time Machine* by H.G. Wells\r\n\r\nH.G. Wells\'s 1895 novella, *The Time Machine*, is more than just a foundational work of science fiction; it is a sharp and enduring social critique that uses a journey into the distant future to examine the anxieties of its own Victorian era. The story remains a compelling and thought-provoking read, even for a modern audience.\r\n\r\nThe novel is narrated by Hillyer, who recounts the incredible tale told to him by an acquaintance known only as the Time Traveller. The Time Traveller, an ingenious Victorian scientist, claims to have built a machine that can move through the fourth dimension. His journey takes him to the year 802,701, where he discovers that humanity has diverged into two distinct species: the gentle, beautiful, and intellectually vacant Eloi, who live a life of leisure on the surface, and the brutish, subterranean Morlocks, who toil in the darkness and prey upon the Eloi.\r\n\r\nWhat makes *The Time Machine* so powerful is its use of this dystopian future to explore the class divisions of Wells\'s own time. The Eloi and the Morlocks are presented as the grim evolutionary outcome of the chasm between the idle aristocracy and the exploited working class. The novel is a chilling warning about the potential consequences of social inequality. While the scientific explanation for the time machine is deliberately vague, the story\'s true power lies not in its mechanics, but in its incisive social commentary and its haunting, atmospheric vision of a world where humanity\'s progress has led to its own decay.\r\n\r\n*The Time Machine* is a must-read for anyone interested in the origins of science fiction or in classic literature that continues to resonate with contemporary concerns. It is a short, fast-paced, and deeply unsettling adventure into the future that serves as a timeless cautionary tale.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: Indirect Speech\r\n\r\n### Change the following into indirect speech.\r\n\r\n**a. She said, \"While I was having dinner, the phone rang.\"**\r\n   * She said that while she was having dinner, the phone rang.\r\n\r\n**b. My friend said, \"Where are they staying?\"**\r\n   * My friend asked where they were staying.\r\n\r\n**c. Jamila said, \"I travel a lot in my job.\"**\r\n   * Jamila said that she travelled a lot in her job.\r\n\r\n**d. She said to me, \"We lived in China for five years.\"**\r\n   * She told me that they had lived in China for five years.\r\n\r\n**e. He said to me, \"Do you like ice-cream?\"**\r\n   * He asked me if I liked ice-cream.\r\n\r\n**f. They said, \"Hurray! We\'ve won the match.\"**\r\n   * They exclaimed with joy that they had won the match.\r\n\r\n**g. He said, \"I\'d tried everything without success, but this new medicine is great.\"**\r\n   * He said that he had tried everything without success, but that new medicine was great.\r\n\r\n**h. Sony said, \"I go to the gym next to your house.\"**\r\n   * Sony said that she went to the gym next to my house.\r\n\r\n**i. He said, \"Be quiet after 10 o\'clock.\"**\r\n   * He told me to be quiet after 10 o\'clock.\r\n\r\n**j. He said, \"I don\'t want to go to the party unless he invites me.\"**\r\n   * He said that he didn\'t want to go to the party unless he invited him.\r\n\r\n**k. He said to me, \"I will see you tomorrow if you meet me.\"**\r\n   * He told me that he would see me the next day if I met him.\r\n\r\n**l. She said, \"If I were you, I would give up the work.\"**\r\n   * She advised me to give up the work. OR She said that if she were me, she would give up the work.', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(46, 1419, '# Chapter Notes: Travel and Tourism\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and themes presented in the chapter \"Travel and Tourism.\"\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Ways with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Vocabulary Definitions\r\n\r\n* **fluffed**: Became fuller and softer by shaking.\r\n* **sanity**: Sound mental health.\r\n* **crumbly**: Consisting of or easily breaking into small pieces.\r\n* **temperate**: Neither very hot nor very cold.\r\n* **arid region**: Land that does not have enough water to support the growth of plants.\r\n* **lukewarm**: Only slightly warm.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Vocabulary Analysis and Usage\r\n\r\n* **hazy** (adjective): Not clear, especially because of heat or mist.\r\n  * *Sentence*: Through the morning fog, the distant mountains were only a **hazy** outline.\r\n* **frontier** (noun): A line that separates two countries; the border between settled and unsettled land.\r\n  * *Sentence*: The town was located on the **frontier** of a vast, unexplored wilderness.\r\n* **lush** (adjective): Covered in healthy grass and plants.\r\n  * *Sentence*: After the monsoon rains, the valley became a **lush** green paradise.\r\n* **flip-flops** (noun): Open-toed sandals with a thong that goes between the big toe and the second toe.\r\n  * *Sentence*: It is not practical to hike in the mountains wearing **flip-flops**.\r\n* **altitude** (noun): The height of an object or point in relation to sea level or ground level.\r\n  * *Sentence*: The climbers began to feel the effects of the high **altitude**.\r\n* **fatal** (adjective): Causing or capable of causing death.\r\n  * *Sentence*: The pilot\'s error proved to be **fatal** for everyone on board.\r\n* **magnificent** (adjective): Extremely attractive and impressive; deserving praise.\r\n  * *Sentence*: The view of the Himalayas from the summit was absolutely **magnificent**.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Nepali Words in the Text\r\n\r\n| Nepali Word | English Equivalent / Meaning |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| **bideshi** | Foreigner |\r\n| **Tatopani** | Hot spring / lukewarm water |\r\n| **raksi** | Local alcoholic beverage; wine |\r\n| **bahini** | Younger sister |\r\n| **mathi** | Up / above |\r\n| **tala** | Down / below |\r\n| **sutne** | To sleep |\r\n| **panipuri** | A popular South Asian street-food snack. |\r\n| **pani** | Water |\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. How did the author feel when she saw a colourful rooster in the western Himalayas?**\r\nThe author was amused when she unexpectedly saw a colourful rooster in such a remote Himalayan location. She humorously imagined that the rooster glanced at her for a moment and winked.\r\n\r\n**b. How does she describe the houses on the trails of western Nepal?**\r\nShe describes the houses as being crudely constructed from stones, situated precariously under rock overhangs or near rivers. Although they appeared crumbly and fragile, she noted that the people living in them seemed comfortable and at home.\r\n\r\n**c. What does she mean when she says, \"I walked towards a village 15 kilometres further as the crow flies?\"**\r\nThis phrase means that the direct, straight-line distance to the village was 15 kilometres. It implies that the actual walking distance along the winding mountain trail would be significantly longer.\r\n\r\n**d. Describe the village Thankur in brief.**\r\nThankur was a very small and isolated village, consisting of only two houses. It was located in an arid, sparsely populated region and was home to large, rainbow-colored birds known as the Himalayan monal.\r\n\r\n**e. What happened when she reached Jumla and how was she relieved?**\r\nWhen she reached Jumla, she fell ill with a bad stomach bug and an unidentified virus. She found relief after taking medicine and, surprisingly, eating some panipuri from a local street vendor.\r\n\r\n**f. How does the author describe the bucket of water in Khali Lagna?**\r\nAt the high altitude of Khali Lagna, the surface of the water in the bucket had frozen solid overnight. She found a satisfying feeling in cracking the ice to access the water underneath, which she noted was surprisingly lukewarm.\r\n\r\n**g. How was Rara Lake on the day she reached there?**\r\nOn the day she arrived, Rara Lake was glistening in its \"dark blue glory,\" appearing magnificent and pristine under the clear sky.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. \"Travelling a place is equal to reading three books.\" Do you agree?\r\n\r\nI completely agree with this sentiment. While books provide invaluable knowledge, travelling offers a multi-sensory, experiential form of learning that is profoundly more impactful. It transforms abstract information into tangible reality, providing a depth of understanding that reading alone cannot replicate.\r\n\r\nFirst, travel provides **firsthand experience**. Reading about the Eiffel Tower is informative, but standing beneath its immense iron lattice and seeing Paris spread out below is an entirely different and more memorable lesson in architecture, history, and scale. This direct engagement with a place, its people, and its culture provides context and a visceral connection that words on a page can only suggest.\r\n\r\nSecond, travel is an unparalleled education in **cultural immersion and empathy**. You can read about different customs, but sharing a meal with a local family, navigating a bustling foreign market, or attempting to communicate in a new language fosters a level of understanding and respect for other ways of life that is transformative. This process challenges one\'s own preconceptions and builds a more nuanced worldview.\r\n\r\nFinally, travel teaches **practical life skills**. Navigating unfamiliar public transport, managing a budget in a different currency, and adapting to unforeseen circumstances builds self-reliance, problem-solving skills, and resilience. These are lessons in character and capability that are learned through doing, not just reading. In essence, travel enriches the knowledge gained from books with the wisdom of experience.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. The author spent five weeks walking along the western Himalayas. Was it adventurous?\r\n\r\nYes, the author\'s five-week trek along the western Himalayas was unequivocally adventurous. The journey embodied the core elements of adventure: it involved navigating a remote and challenging environment, facing considerable risk, and pushing the boundaries of physical and mental endurance.\r\n\r\nThe author journeyed through areas where few tourists venture, choosing demanding routes like the Dhaulagiri Circuit. This element of exploration into the unknown is a key component of adventure. She faced numerous physical challenges, including trekking through glaciers, crossing rivers, traversing arid regions, and enduring freezing nights at high altitudes. These obstacles required not only physical fitness but also significant mental fortitude.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, the text highlights her reliance on \"primal instincts\" and \"human intuition,\" suggesting that her survival depended on her ability to adapt to a raw and untamed environment. This journey was not a comfortable, guided tour; it was an immersive and demanding experience that broke the monotony of modern life and forced her to engage with nature on its own terms. The combination of physical hardship, exploration of remote terrain, and the inherent risks involved clearly defines her journey as a true adventure.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Writing\r\n\r\n### A. Travelogue of a Visit to Pashupatinath\r\n\r\nWith the goal of experiencing one of Nepal\'s most sacred sites firsthand, our class recently visited the Pashupati area, a sprawling complex of temples and shrines on the banks of the holy Bagmati River. As soon as we passed through the entrance, the air changed, becoming thick with the scent of incense, marigolds, and the faint, somber smell of woodsmoke from the cremation ghats.\r\n\r\nOur first impression was of a vibrant, living history. We wandered through Deupatan, where ancient stone sculptures stood weathered but resolute. The main temple of Pashupatinath, with its magnificent two-tiered golden roof and silver doors, was a sight to behold. Although as non-Hindus we could not enter, we observed the steady stream of devotees from the eastern bank, their faces a mixture of reverence and hope. We watched as saffron-clad sadhus, their faces painted and hair matted, sat in quiet meditation, seemingly indifferent to the curious tourists around them.\r\n\r\nThe most profound experience was witnessing the open-air cremations at the ghats. It was a powerful and public confrontation with the cycle of life and death. Watching the rituals, performed with such solemnity and acceptance, was a deeply moving lesson in Hindu philosophy. As the sun began to set, we attended the evening *aarati*, a mesmerizing ceremony of light, music, and chanting that filled the air with an electric spiritual energy. Leaving Pashupati, I felt I had not just visited a place, but had briefly touched the very soul of a culture.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Essay: The Importance of Tourism in Nepal\r\n\r\nNepal, a nation blessed with unparalleled natural beauty and a rich cultural tapestry, rightfully holds a prominent place on the world\'s travel map. Tourism is not merely an industry for Nepal; it is a vital lifeline that is inextricably linked to the nation\'s economy, cultural preservation, and international identity. Its importance, therefore, cannot be overstated.\r\n\r\nThe most significant contribution of tourism is to the national economy. As a primary source of foreign currency, it provides the revenue necessary for the country to import essential goods and to invest in crucial infrastructure projects. The tourism sector creates a wide spectrum of employment opportunities, from high-altitude trekking guides and hotel managers to local artisans and restaurateurs. This provides a direct livelihood for thousands of families, particularly in rural areas where alternative economic opportunities may be scarce. The demand for local handicrafts, such as pashmina shawls and thangka paintings, not only generates income but also helps to keep traditional skills and crafts alive.\r\n\r\nBeyond its economic impact, tourism is a powerful vehicle for cultural exchange. When international visitors explore Nepal\'s UNESCO World Heritage sites, from the ancient durbar squares of the Kathmandu Valley to the birthplace of Lord Buddha in Lumbini, they gain a deeper appreciation for the nation\'s rich history and religious traditions. This interaction fosters cross-cultural understanding and projects Nepal\'s unique identity onto the global stage. It builds bridges of friendship and promotes a positive image of the country, which in turn encourages further investment and collaboration.\r\n\r\nIn conclusion, tourism is a cornerstone of Nepal\'s development. It fuels the economy, sustains communities, preserves culture, and builds international goodwill. To ensure its continued success, it is imperative that this vital sector is developed sustainably, protecting the very natural and cultural treasures that make Nepal so unique.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: The Passive Voice\r\n\r\n### B. Complete These Sentences\r\n\r\na. Letters **are delivered** by the postman every day.\r\nb. This bag **was found** in the bus yesterday.\r\nc. The gate **is locked** at 7:00 pm every evening.\r\nd. I **was invited** to the party last week.\r\ne. The telephone **was invented** by Graham Bell.\r\nf. *Muna Madan* **was written** by Devkota.\r\ng. How much money **was stolen** in the robbery?\r\nh. Do you know that cheese **is made** from milk?\r\ni. I was born in Kathmandu, but **was raised** in Dhangadhi.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Change the Following Sentences into Passive\r\n\r\na. I didn’t fix the problem.\r\n   * **The problem wasn\'t fixed by me.**\r\nb. Police protect the town.\r\n   * **The town is protected by the police.**\r\nc. John’s mother raised him in a small town.\r\n   * **He was raised in a small town by John’s mother.**\r\nd. Someone painted the building last year.\r\n   * **The building was painted last year.**\r\ne. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928.\r\n   * **Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming.**\r\nf. Some students study grammar on the Internet.\r\n   * **Grammar is studied on the Internet by some students.**\r\ng. Someone had broken the window by 3:00 p.m.\r\n   * **The window had been broken by 3:00 p.m.**\r\nh. A strange man was watching us.\r\n   * **We were being watched by a strange man.**\r\ni. Tokyo will hold the Olympics in 2020.\r\n   * **The Olympics will be held in 2020 by Tokyo.**\r\nj. We are working on the report right now.\r\n   * **The report is being worked on right now by us.**\r\nk. My manager has told him to arrive earlier.\r\n   * **He has been told to arrive earlier by my manager.**\r\nl. They could not have made the mistake.\r\n   * **The mistake could not have been made by them.**\r\nm. I hope they are going to hire me soon.\r\n   * **I hope I am going to be hired soon.**\r\nn. I don\'t like people staring at me.\r\n   * **I don\'t like being stared at.**\r\no. She likes people waving at her.\r\n   * **She likes being waved at.**\r\np. Who told you the story?\r\n   * **By whom were you told the story?**\r\nq. Is he repairing the bicycle?\r\n   * **Is the bicycle being repaired by him?**', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(47, 1420, '# Chapter Notes: Science and Technology\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of the key concepts, vocabulary, and grammatical principles presented in the chapter \"Science and Technology.\"\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Ways with Words\r\n\r\n### A. Vocabulary Definitions\r\n\r\n| Word | Definition |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| **Freshman** | A first-year student at a university, college, or high school. |\r\n| **Naive** | Having a lack of experience, wisdom, or judgment. |\r\n| **Obliviously** | In a way that shows a lack of conscious awareness. |\r\n| **Brag** | To say something in a boastful manner. |\r\n| **Disposal** | The action or process of throwing away or getting rid of something. |\r\n| **Dorm** | A dormitory; a large building at a college or school where students live. |\r\n| **Suitemate** | A person who shares a suite (a set of connected rooms) with another. |\r\n| **Incalculable** | Too great to be calculated or estimated. |\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### B. Synonyms\r\n\r\na. Her story is **incredible** in the literal sense of the word.\r\nb. We often read the novels of **potential** writers in the world.\r\nc. The Facebook users are **fragmented** but connected to each other through the Internet.\r\nd. Sometimes **unanticipated** events happen in our life.\r\ne. He paused, **scrutinizing** the faces of Anjana and Manju with his glittering eyes.\r\nf. I am sorry to say your handwriting is **indecipherable**.\r\ng. He is mature. He can **navigate** his own journey to make his career better.\r\nh. Gita\'s heart swelled with **delight**, translating her confidence into power.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### C. Commonly Confused Words\r\n\r\na. Does television **affect** children? (affect/effect)\r\nb. Does television have an **effect** on children? (affect/effect)\r\nc. Could you **lend** me your book, please? (borrow/lend)\r\nd. Can I **borrow** your pen? (borrow/lend)\r\ne. Prices seem to **rise** every year. (raise/rise)\r\nf. You can **raise** your hand if you want to ask a question. (raise/rise)\r\ng. What did he **say** to you? (say/tell)\r\nh. I can\'t **speak** Hindi. (speak/talk)\r\ni. I will **talk** to you on the phone. (speak/talk)\r\nj. I think that\'s a very **sensible** idea. (sensible/sensitive)\r\nk. My teeth are very **sensitive** to cold. (sensible/sensitive)\r\nl. Our **principal** is a popular person. (principal/principle)\r\nm. I couldn\'t understand the **principle** of gravity. (principal/principle)\r\nn. All friends, **except** Nabina, came to the party. (accept/except)\r\no. Will you **accept** my request? (accept/except)\r\np. They were making too much **noise**. (noise/sound)\r\nq. All she could hear was the **sound** of the waves. (noise/sound)\r\nr. Did you give him any **advice** for his career? (advice/advise)\r\ns. My parents **advise** me to be a teacher. (advice/advise)\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Comprehension\r\n\r\n### Answer the Following Questions\r\n\r\n**a. Why did the author feel that she was lucky to be so naïve during her freshman year at college?**\r\nThe author felt lucky to be naïve because her ignorance forced her to engage with her environment directly. Without technology to provide easy answers, she had to explore, interact with people face-to-face, and make discoveries on her own, leading to memorable and serendipitous experiences.\r\n\r\n**b. Why did she say that she went to college in the Stone Age?**\r\nShe uses the metaphor \"Stone Age\" to create a humorous and stark contrast between her own technologically sparse college experience and that of her son. Compared to his world of smartphones, apps, and constant connectivity, her reliance on typewriters and landlines seems primitive, like a bygone era.\r\n\r\n**c. What kinds of technological tools can Hayden use in his college life that were unavailable to his mother?**\r\nHayden has access to a wide array of modern technological tools, including a smartphone with university-specific apps, laptops, and various social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, all of which facilitate instant communication and information access.\r\n\r\n**d. How have the internet and social sites affected the lifestyle of youths?**\r\nAccording to the author, the internet and social sites have made youths heavily reliant on technology for nearly everything. While this provides convenience and a sense of connection, it can also hamper creativity and critical thinking by offering immediate answers. It creates a \"fragmented\" social life, where virtual connections may replace deep, in-person relationships, causing them to miss out on the genuine discovery of the real world.\r\n\r\n**e. What things about college life will Hayden really miss that his mother experienced?**\r\nHayden will likely miss the serendipity of un-planned discoveries, the challenge of navigating a new environment without digital aids, and the depth of the face-to-face social interactions and friendships that his mother experienced.\r\n\r\n**f. The writer says, \"I worry that students today are more connected and more fragmented.\" Isn\'t this paradoxical? How?**\r\nYes, this statement is paradoxical. It seems contradictory because \"connected\" and \"fragmented\" are opposites. The paradox is resolved by understanding the *nature* of the connection. Students today are digitally **connected** to a vast network of hundreds or thousands of people online. However, these connections are often superficial, leading to a sense of being socially **fragmented** or isolated in the real world, as deep, personal bonds forged through shared physical experiences may be lacking.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Critical Thinking\r\n\r\n### a. Can technological advancements hinder the memorable moments of student life?\r\n\r\nWhile technology offers unprecedented access to information and tools for learning, its advancement can indeed hinder the organic, memorable moments that traditionally define the student experience. By removing friction and automating social navigation, technology can inadvertently block the very challenges and spontaneous interactions that create lasting memories.\r\n\r\nFor instance, the challenge of finding a classroom on the first day, asking a stranger for directions, or gathering in a common room to collaboratively solve a problem has been replaced by campus map apps and instant messaging groups. These conveniences, while efficient, eliminate opportunities for serendipitous encounters and the development of real-world problem-solving skills. Friendships that might have been forged over a shared, difficult experience are now curated through social media algorithms.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, the constant digital stimulation can create a distraction that prevents students from being fully present in the moment. A beautiful sunset on campus might be viewed through a phone screen for an Instagram story rather than experienced with quiet appreciation. A lively debate in a coffee shop might be interrupted by notifications. In this sense, technology can act as a filter, mediating experiences rather than allowing for direct, unscripted engagement with the world, thereby robbing students of some of life’s most authentic and memorable moments.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### b. What common ground do Kline’s and her son’s college experiences share?\r\n\r\nDespite the vast technological chasm separating her college experience from her son\'s, Kline establishes that the fundamental emotional and social journey of a freshman remains remarkably common. The core experiences of leaving home and starting anew are universal and timeless.\r\n\r\nBoth mother and son share the same feelings of excitement mixed with apprehension that define the first year of college. They both face the challenge of navigating a new social landscape and the fundamental human need to find a sense of belonging and make friends. The physical spaces—the dorm rooms, the libraries, the campus layout—may be the same, but more importantly, the rite of passage is the same. It is a period of intense personal growth, self-discovery, and the transition from adolescence to adulthood. While the tools they use are different, the underlying purpose of their education—to learn, to grow, and to figure out who they are—is a common thread that connects their two generations.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### c. Has the internet aided in broadening or narrowing the critical thinking capacity of youths?\r\n\r\nThe internet\'s effect on the critical thinking capacity of youth is a double-edged sword; it has the potential to both broaden and narrow it, depending entirely on how it is used.\r\n\r\nOn one hand, the internet can **broaden** critical thinking by providing unprecedented access to a vast and diverse range of information and perspectives. A curious student can research a topic from multiple sources, compare conflicting viewpoints from different cultures, and engage with complex data sets, thereby developing a more nuanced and well-rounded understanding. It is a powerful tool for moving beyond the confines of a single textbook and fostering intellectual curiosity.\r\n\r\nOn the other hand, the internet can severely **narrow** critical thinking. The algorithmic nature of social media and search engines often creates \"echo chambers\" and \"filter bubbles,\" where users are only shown content that confirms their existing biases. This can stifle exposure to dissenting opinions and impede intellectual growth. Furthermore, the sheer volume of information can encourage superficial engagement—skimming headlines instead of deep reading, and accepting the first answer from a Google search without questioning its validity. If used passively, the internet can train the mind to seek quick, easy answers rather than to engage in the rigorous, analytical process that defines true critical thinking.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Grammar: Articles\r\n\r\n### A. Fill in the Gaps with Suitable Articles\r\n\r\na. Is he working as **a** university professor?\r\nb. My younger sister watches **x** television a lot. (x = no article)\r\nc. A: What did you get for your birthday?\r\n   B: I got **a** lot of good presents.\r\nd. I\'m going to **the** Dominican Republic for my winter vacation.\r\ne. I have to go to **a** bank today to deposit some money.\r\nf. Durga was injured in the accident and was taken to **the** nearest hospital.\r\ng. Every parent should visit **the** school to meet the teachers.\r\nh. Who is **the** woman in this photograph?\r\ni. There is **a** piano in the corner of the room.\r\nj. A: Do you think he is lying?\r\n   B: No, he\'s **the** kind of guy that always tells the truth.', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56');
INSERT INTO `course_notes_content` (`id`, `topic_id`, `content`, `markdown_format`, `created_at`, `updated_at`) VALUES
(48, 1421, '# Chapter Notes: The Selfish Giant\r\n\r\nThis document provides a comprehensive analysis of Oscar Wilde\'s allegorical fairy tale, \"The Selfish Giant,\" including a detailed summary, textual analysis, and discussion of its literary elements.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Summary\r\n\r\nEvery afternoon, on their way home from school, a group of children would visit and play in a large, magnificent garden belonging to a Giant. It was a child\'s paradise, with soft green grass, beautiful flowers, and twelve peach trees that produced delicate pink and pearl blossoms in the spring and rich fruit in the autumn. Birds would perch on the trees and sing so sweetly that the children would often stop their games just to listen to them.\r\n\r\nThis idyllic routine was shattered when the Giant returned after a seven-year visit to his friend, the Cornish Ogre. Upon seeing the children in his garden, he became furious and, in a selfish rage, shouted at them to leave. He declared that his garden was his own and that he would allow nobody to play in it but himself. To enforce this, he constructed a high wall around the garden and put up a threatening notice board: \"TRESPASSERS WILL BE PROSECUTED.\" The children were left with no place to play and could only wander outside the high walls, reminiscing about the beautiful garden within.\r\n\r\nFollowing the Giant\'s selfish act, the garden fell into a state of perpetual winter. When spring arrived throughout the country, the Giant\'s garden remained cold and desolate, covered in Snow and Frost. The trees forgot to blossom, and the birds refused to sing without the children. The Snow and Frost were so pleased that they invited the North Wind to stay, and he, in turn, invited the Hail. The seasons of joy abandoned the garden, and Autumn brought no golden fruit. The Giant, miserable and isolated, could not understand why Spring was so late in coming.\r\n\r\nOne morning, the Giant awoke to the beautiful music of a linnet singing outside his window. The sound was so sweet that it signaled the end of the long winter. Looking out, he saw a wonderful sight: the children had found a small hole in the wall and had crept back into the garden. On every tree he could see, a child was sitting, and the trees were so glad to have the children back that they had covered themselves with blossoms. The birds were flying about and twittering with delight.\r\n\r\nHowever, in the farthest corner of the garden, it was still winter. There stood a very small boy, crying because he was too tiny to reach the branches of the tree. Seeing this, the Giant\'s heart finally melted. \"How selfish I have been!\" he said. He understood that he had kept the Spring out of his garden by keeping the children out. He went out to help the little boy, but when the other children saw him, they fled in terror, and winter returned to the garden. Only the little boy remained, his eyes so full of tears that he did not see the Giant approaching. The Giant gently lifted him up into the tree, which immediately burst into blossom. In gratitude, the little boy threw his arms around the Giant\'s neck and kissed him.\r\n\r\nSeeing that the Giant was no longer wicked, the other children returned, and with them came the Spring. The Giant tore down the wall and declared that his garden would be the children\'s playground forever. He played with them every afternoon, but the little boy whom he loved best was never seen again. Years passed, and the Giant grew old and feeble. One winter morning, he looked out and saw a marvelous sight: the corner tree was covered in lovely white blossoms, its branches were golden, and underneath it stood the little boy. The Giant ran to him, but when he drew near, he saw the prints of nails on the boy\'s hands and feet. In anger, the Giant asked who had wounded him, but the boy replied, \"These are the wounds of Love.\" Awe fell upon the Giant, and the child invited him to his garden, which is Paradise. Later that day, the children found the Giant lying dead under the tree, all covered with white blossoms.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Understanding the Text\r\n\r\n**a. Where did the children use to play?**\r\nThe children used to play in the Giant\'s large, beautiful garden, which was filled with soft grass, flowers, and fruit-bearing trees.\r\n\r\n**b. What did the Snow and the Frost do to the garden?**\r\nThe Snow and the Frost personified the winter that took over the Giant\'s garden after he drove the children away. The Snow covered the grass with a great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver, ensuring that the garden remained barren and cold.\r\n\r\n**c. What did the giant hear when he was lying awake in bed?**\r\nAfter a long and desolate winter, the Giant heard the beautiful and sweet music of a linnet bird singing outside his window. This sound was the first sign that the cold spell was breaking and that spring was finally returning to his garden.\r\n\r\n**d. Why do you think the spring season never came to the giant\'s garden?**\r\nIn the story\'s allegorical framework, the seasons are directly connected to the presence of joy, love, and innocence. The spring season never came to the Giant\'s garden because his selfishness had banished the children, who symbolized these life-giving qualities. By walling the children out, he had effectively walled out happiness and warmth, leaving his garden in a state of perpetual spiritual and literal winter.\r\n\r\n**e. How did the giant realise his mistake?**\r\nThe Giant realized his mistake through an epiphany that occurred when he saw the children sneak back into his garden. He observed the stark contrast between the parts of the garden that immediately blossomed wherever a child was present and the one far corner that remained in winter, where a tiny, crying boy could not reach a tree branch. This visual evidence of the connection between the children and the garden\'s vitality made him understand the profound consequences of his selfishness.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Reference to the Context\r\n\r\n### A. Read the extracts given below and answer the questions that follow.\r\n\r\n**a. “How happy we were there!” they said to each other.**\r\n\r\n**i. Where does ‘there’ refer to?**\r\n\'There\' refers to the Giant\'s beautiful garden, which used to be the children\'s playground.\r\n\r\n**ii. What does ‘they’ refer to?**\r\n\'They\' refers to the children who have been locked out of the garden by the selfish Giant.\r\n\r\n**iii. Why are they saying so?**\r\nThey are saying this because they have been deprived of their joyful playground. The Giant has selfishly built a wall around the garden, and they are now left with only the hard, dusty road to play on, causing them to fondly remember the happiness they experienced in the soft grass of the garden.\r\n\r\n**b. “I have many beautiful flowers,” he said; “but the children are the most beautiful flowers of all.”**\r\n\r\n**i. Who is the speaker?**\r\nThe speaker is the Giant, after his heart has been changed.\r\n\r\n**ii. Who is he speaking to?**\r\nHe is speaking to himself, reflecting on the profound lesson he has learned about the nature of true beauty and happiness.\r\n\r\n**iii. Who are ‘the children’ that the speaker is referring to?**\r\n\'The children\' are the local school children who, through their innocence and joy, brought life and spring back into his garden and into his own heart.\r\n\r\n**iv. Why is the speaker saying that ‘the children are the ……’?**\r\nThe speaker is using a metaphor to express his newfound understanding. While his garden\'s flowers are beautiful, he now realizes that the children possess a far greater and more vital beauty. Their presence brings life, joy, and warmth (symbolized by the spring), making them the most precious and essential \"flowers\" in his garden and in his life.\r\n\r\n**c. When the little child smiled at the Giant, and said to him, \"You let me play once in your garden, today you shall come with me to my garden, which is Paradise,\" shortly afterwards, the happy giant dies. What is the coincidence of this event? Describe it in relation to this fairy story.**\r\nThe event is not a mere coincidence but the allegorical climax of this fairy story. The little boy represents a Christ-figure, a messenger of divine love and forgiveness. The \"coincidence\" is a profound act of spiritual reciprocity. Years earlier, the Giant, in his first act of selfless love, lifted the child into his earthly garden. Now, the child returns to invite the redeemed Giant into his garden, which he explicitly names \"Paradise\" or Heaven.\r\n\r\nThis event is the culmination of the Giant\'s journey from selfishness to salvation. The child\'s earlier wounds, which he calls the \"wounds of Love,\" are an allusion to the stigmata of Christ, confirming his divine nature. The invitation is therefore a divine reward for the Giant\'s transformation. His subsequent death is not a sorrowful end but a peaceful and joyous transition into the afterlife, signifying that his soul, having embraced love, is finally ready for eternal peace.\r\n\r\n### B. The story makes use of personification as one of the main figures of speech. Cite three examples of personification from the story. What is the significance of the seasons personified in the story?\r\n\r\nPersonification is the literary device of attributing human qualities and actions to inanimate objects or abstract ideas. Three prominent examples from the story are:\r\n1.  **The Flowers**: After the children are banished, the flowers are so sad for them that they slip back into the ground to sleep.\r\n2.  **The Snow and the Frost**: These two are portrayed as characters who are \"pleased\" that spring has forgotten the garden. They declare, \"We will live here all the year round,\" and invite other winter elements to join them.\r\n3.  **The North Wind**: He is described as a being \"wrapped in furs\" who \"roared all day about the garden\" and was invited as a guest by the Snow and the Frost.\r\n\r\nThe personification of the seasons is of utmost significance as it serves as the story\'s moral compass, visually representing the state of the Giant\'s soul. Nature itself reacts to the Giant\'s morality. When he is selfish, the life-giving seasons of Spring, Summer, and Autumn abandon him, leaving his garden in the hands of the harsh, personified Winter. This demonstrates that selfishness is an unnatural state, contrary to the life and joy of the natural world. When the Giant opens his heart to the children, nature joyfully responds in kind, and Spring returns. This powerful use of personification shows that love and compassion are in harmony with the natural order, while selfishness leads only to coldness and desolation.\r\n\r\n### C. This story can be read as a fairy story, where the children, the seasons, the tree, the corner of the garden, the snow, the wind and the frost are all used as symbolism. Interpret those symbols.\r\n\r\nThis fairy story is rich with symbolism, where characters, objects, and natural elements represent deeper abstract and spiritual ideas.\r\n\r\n* **The Children**: Symbolize innocence, purity, joy, and the life-giving potential of unconditional love. They are the agents of change who bring spring and happiness wherever they go.\r\n* **The Seasons (Spring and Winter)**: These symbolize the state of the Giant\'s soul. Winter represents the coldness, sterility, and spiritual death of a selfish life. Spring represents rebirth, joy, beauty, and the life that is generated by love and generosity.\r\n* **The Tree**: The special tree in the corner symbolizes the connection between the earthly and the divine. It is the site of the Giant\'s first true act of selfless love and, ultimately, the place of his peaceful death and ascent to Paradise.\r\n* **The Corner of the Garden**: This initially cold and barren spot represents a place of spiritual need and potential. It is where the Giant\'s redemption begins and where he finally meets his divine reward, transforming it into a sacred space.\r\n* **The Snow, Wind, and Frost**: These elements symbolize the oppressive and joyless forces that accompany a selfish existence. They are personified as the unpleasant guests who occupy a heart that has closed itself off to love.\r\n\r\n### D. Which figure of speech is used for ‘winter, frost, snow, north wind, hail and little child’? Who is the little child compared to?\r\n\r\nThe primary figure of speech used for \"winter, frost, snow, north wind, and hail\" is **personification**, as they are all endowed with human thoughts, feelings, and actions.\r\n\r\nThe **little child** is a more complex figure. He functions as a powerful **symbol** and is an **allegorical figure** representing divine love and forgiveness. He is directly compared to **Jesus Christ**. This comparison is made explicit through several key details:\r\n* His mysterious nature and his special connection to the Giant.\r\n* The wounds on his hands and feet, which he calls the \"wounds of Love,\" are a clear allusion to the stigmata from the crucifixion of Christ.\r\n* His final invitation to the Giant to join him in his garden, which he names \"Paradise,\" directly equates his domain with Heaven.\r\n\r\n***\r\n\r\n## Reference beyond text\r\n\r\n### a. What is the main theme of the story?\r\n\r\nThe central and most powerful theme of \"The Selfish Giant\" is the **transformative and redemptive power of love and compassion**. The story functions as a Christian allegory to illustrate that a life lived in selfish isolation is spiritually barren, cold, and devoid of joy—a perpetual winter of the soul. In contrast, a life of love, sharing, and selfless generosity brings warmth, beauty, and true happiness, symbolized by the return of spring. The Giant\'s dramatic transformation from a cruel, selfish figure to a kind and loving one demonstrates that anyone, no matter how hard-hearted, can achieve redemption through a genuine change of heart and acts of love. The story teaches the profound lesson that it is only in giving that one truly receives, and that selfless love is the pathway to salvation and eternal peace.\r\n\r\n### b. Does God punish those who are cruel to children and very selfish?\r\n\r\nWithin the moral and allegorical framework of this story, punishment for cruelty and selfishness is not depicted as a direct, thunderous act from a vengeful God. Instead, it is portrayed as the **natural and inevitable spiritual consequence of one\'s own actions**. When the Giant is cruel and selfish, he is \"punished\" by being trapped in a perpetual winter. This is not an external punishment inflicted upon him, but rather the direct, barren reality he has created for himself.\r\n\r\nBy shutting the children out of his garden, he shuts out love, joy, and life itself. His punishment is the desolate, cold world that is a perfect mirror of his own heart. The story suggests that the true punishment for cruelty is a life devoid of the very warmth and happiness that one has refused to give to others. Salvation comes not from appeasing an angry deity, but from the personal act of opening one\'s heart to love, which naturally brings its own reward of joy and life.', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(70, 11208, '# नेपाली हाम्रो श्रम र सिप - कक्षा १० (पूर्ण विस्तृत गाइड)\r\n\r\nकक्षा १० को नेपाली पाठ्यपुस्तकको अध्याय ८, \"नेपाली हाम्रो श्रम र सिप\" को यो एक विस्तृत र पूर्ण गाइड हो। यस अध्यायले राष्ट्रको प्रगति र आत्मनिर्भर समाज निर्माणका लागि श्रम र सिपको महत्त्वमाथि जोड दिन्छ। तल दिइएका सबै प्रश्नोत्तरहरूलाई PDF अनुसार विस्तृत रूपमा समावेश गरिएको छ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## शब्दभण्डार (Vocabulary)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका शब्दको अर्थ लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n| **शब्द (Word)** | **अर्थ (Meaning)** |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| कला | कुनै काम राम्रोसित गर्ने सिप वा कौशल |\r\n| श्रम | काम, मिहिनेत |\r\n| सितो | पाकेको चामलको दानो |\r\n| आलस्य | काममा जाँगर नभएको, अल्छीपन |\r\n| रहस्य | भित्री आशय वा मर्म |\r\n| सम्पदा | सम्पत्ति, धन |\r\n| चोखो | पवित्र, कसैको जुठो नभएको |\r\n| स्वर्ग | देवलोक, सुन्दर स्थान |\r\n\r\n### २. कविताबाट पाँच जोडी लय मिल्दा शब्द पहिचान गरी लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n* बाँच्ने छ - साँच्ने छ\r\n* लगाऊँ - बनाऊँ\r\n* नखाए - नलाए\r\n* मिलाए - लगाए\r\n* पाएको - गाएको\r\n\r\n### ३. दिइएका शब्दलाई वाक्यमा प्रयोग गर्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n* **स्वदेश:** विदेशमा जति नै अवसर भए पनि म आफ्नो पढाइ सकेर स्वदेशमै सेवा गर्नेछु।\r\n* **पसिना:** हामीले आफ्‌नै देशको माटोमा पसिना बगाउन सके मात्र राष्ट्रको उन्नति हुन्छ।\r\n* **सिप:** हामीले समयअनुसार नयाँ सिप सिकेर त्यसलाई देश विकासमा प्रयोग गर्नुपर्छ।\r\n* **पुर्खा:** यो देश हाम्रा वीर पुर्खाको त्याग र बलिदानको चिनो हो, यसको रक्षा गर्नु हाम्रो कर्तव्य हो।\r\n* **भाषा:** मलाई नेपाली भाषा बोल्न र लेख्न पाउँदा गर्व महसुस हुन्छ।\r\n* **सितो:** परिश्रमी किसानले अन्नको एक सितो पनि खेर फाल्दैन।\r\n* **विज्ञान:** आज विज्ञान र प्रविधिको विकासले असम्भव जस्ता लाग्ने कुरा पनि सम्भव भएका छन्।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## बोध र अभिव्यक्ति (Comprehension and Expression)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका प्रश्नको उत्तर भन्नुहोस्ः\r\n\r\n**(क) नेपाली हाम्रो श्रम र सिप कविताको अन्तिम श्लोक बाचन गर्नुहोस् र उक्त श्लोकका हरेक पङ्क्तिमा कति कतिओटा शब्द छन्, भन्नुहोस् ।**\r\n**उत्तरः** श्लोकको पहिलो, तेस्रो र चौथो पङ्क्तिमा सात-सात शब्द छन् भने दोस्रो प‌ङ्क्तिमा छओटा शब्द छन्।\r\n\r\n**(ख) उक्त श्लोकका हरफहरूको अन्त्यमा समान ध्वनि भएका दुई जोडी शब्द भन्नुहोस् ।**\r\n**उत्तरः** जगाऊँ - भगाऊँ; बगाऊँ - लगाऊँ।\r\n\r\n**(ग) आशिष दिने प्रसङ्ग कविताको कुन श्लोकको कुन पङ्क्तिमा आएको छ ?**\r\n**उत्तरः** आशिष दिने प्रसङ्ग कविताको अन्तिम श्लोकको तेस्रो पङ्क्तिमा आएको छ।\r\n\r\n**(घ) नेपाली हाम्रो श्रम र सिप स्वदेशमै लगाऊँ भन्ने पङ्क्ति कवितामा कति पटक पुनरावृत्ति भएको छ ?**\r\n**उत्तरः** \'नेपाली हाम्रो श्रम र सिप स्वदेशमै लगाऊँ\' भन्ने पङ्क्ति कवितामा तीनपटक पुनरावृत्ति भएको छ।\r\n\r\n### २. दिइएको कवितांश पढी सोधिएका प्रश्नको उत्तर दिनुहोस्:\r\n> पहाड भन्छ पसिना पाए म स्वर्ग भुलाउथें\r\n> तराई भन्छ सिँचाइ पाए...\r\n> के छ र गाह्रो होस्टेमा हैंसे सबैले मिलाए\r\n> सबैले चोखो श्रम र सिप स्वदेशमै लगाए।\r\n\r\n**(क) पहाडले पसिना खोज्नुको आशय खुलाउनुहोस् ।**\r\n**उत्तरः** पहाडले पसिना खोज्नुको आशय पहाडले हामी नेपालीहरुको मिहिनेत र परिश्रम खोजेको हो।\r\n\r\n**(ख) तराईलाई सिँचाइ किन चाहिएको हो ?**\r\n**उत्तरः** बाँझो जमिनमा खेतीपाती गरी अन्न फलाउन तराईलाई सिँचाइ चाहिएको हो।\r\n\r\n**(ग) होस्टेमा हैंसे गर्दा देशलाई कस्तो फाइदा पुग्छ ?**\r\n**उत्तरः** होस्टेमा हैंसे भनेको सबै मिलेर काम गर्नु हो। सबै मिलेर काम गरे देशको विकास हुन्छ।\r\n\r\n**(घ) श्रम र सिपलाई स्वदेशमै लगाउनुपर्छ भन्ने भनाइलाई पुष्टि गर्नुहोस् ।**\r\n**उत्तरः** श्रम र सिपलाई स्वदेशमै लगाउनुपर्छ किनकि सबै मिलेर आफ्‌नै देशमा श्रम गर्ने हो भने देश विकसित हुन्छ। देश विकसित भयो भने हामी खुसी र सुखी हुन्छौँ।\r\n\r\n### ३. दिइएका प्रश्नको उत्तर लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n**(क) नेपाली धरती विश्वमै महान् छ भन्ने भनाइलाई कविताका आधारमा वर्णन गर्नुहोस्।**\r\n**उत्तरः** सृष्टिको प्रारम्भदेखि नै नेपाली धरती ज्ञान र अध्यात्मले विशेष मानिन्छ। यो भूमि ईश्वरले वास गरेको पवित्र स्थल र ऋषिमुनिहरूले तपस्या गरेको तपोभूमिका रूपमा परिचित छ। यही धरतीमा देवता, ऋषि र मनुष्यले एकसाथ मिलेर वेदका दर्शन गाएका थिए। हिन्दुहरूको वेद, किराँतहरूको मुन्धुम, र बौद्धहरूको धम्मपद जस्ता महान् ग्रन्थहरूले यस भूमिलाई पवित्र बनाएका छन्। प्राकृतिक, सांस्कृतिक र धार्मिक सम्पदाले भरिपूर्ण भएका कारण कविले नेपाली धरतीलाई विश्वमै महान् भनेर वर्णन गरेका छन्।\r\n\r\n**(ख) कवितामा धार्मिक विविधतालाई कविले कसरी चिनाएका छन्?**\r\n**उत्तरः** कवितामा कविले नेपाललाई विभिन्न धर्म र संस्कृतिको संगमस्थलका रूपमा चिनाएका छन्। नेपाल देवता र ऋषिमुनिहरू बसेको पवित्र धरती हो भन्दै उनले विभिन्न धार्मिक समुदायका प्रमुख ग्रन्थहरूको उल्लेख गरेका छन्। कवितामा हिन्दुहरूको \'वेद\', किराँतहरूको \'मुन्धुम\', र बौद्धहरूको \'धम्मपद\' जस्ता पवित्र ग्रन्थहरूको नाम लिइएको छ। यसले नेपालमा हिन्दु, बौद्ध, किराँत लगायत अन्य धर्महरूबीच गहिरो सहिष्णुता र सद्भाव रहेको सङ्केत गर्छ। यसरी प्रमुख धार्मिक ग्रन्थहरूको उल्लेख गरेर कविले नेपालको सुन्दर धार्मिक विविधतालाई प्रस्तुत गरेका छन्।\r\n\r\n**(ग) कविताको दोस्रो श्लोकको विषयवस्तु वर्णन गर्नुहोस्।**\r\n**उत्तरः** कविताको दोस्रो श्लोकमा नेपाली-नेपालीबीचको एकता, आपसी सद्भाव र सामूहिक पीडाको भावनालाई प्रस्तुत गरिएको छ। यस श्लोकअनुसार, कुनै एक नेपाली भोकै रहनु भनेको सम्पूर्ण नेपाली भोकै रहनु सरह हो र एक नेपाली नाङ्गै रहनु भनेको सबै नेपाली नाङ्गै रहनु जस्तै हो। यसले हरेक नेपालीको सुख-दुःखमा सारा देशवासी एक हुनुपर्छ भन्ने सन्देश दिन्छ। हरेक नेपालीलाई गाँस, बास र कपासको न्यूनतम आवश्यकता पूरा गर्न सबैले हातेमालो गर्नुपर्ने र आफ्नो श्रम र सिपलाई देशकै हितमा लगाउनुपर्ने भाव यस श्लोकमा वर्णन गरिएको छ।\r\n\r\n**(घ) \'नेपाली हाम्रो श्रम र सिप\' कविताको मूल भाव के हो?**\r\n**उत्तरः** कवि मुकुन्दशरण उपाध्यायद्वारा रचित \'नेपाली हाम्रो श्रम र सिप\' कविता राष्ट्रिय भावनाले ओतप्रोत एक प्रेरणादायी रचना हो। यस कविताको मूल भाव \'नेपाल बने मात्र नेपाली बन्छ\' भन्ने हो। देशको विकास र समृद्धिका लागि हरेक नेपालीले आफ्नो श्रम, सिप र पसिना विदेशमा नभई आफ्नै माटोमा खर्च गर्नुपर्छ भन्ने सन्देश दिनु नै कविताको मुख्य उद्देश्य हो। हाम्रो देश प्राकृतिक स्रोत र सम्पदाले सम्पन्न छ। यहाँका पहाड र तराईलाई मिहिनेतले सिँगार्न सके यो देश स्वर्ग बन्न सक्छ। हामीले आफ्नो आलस्य र हीनताबोधलाई त्यागेर एकताका साथ देश निर्माणमा जुट्यौँ भने नेपाल एक स्वाभिमानी, समृद्ध र बलियो राष्ट्र बन्नेछ भन्ने गहन विचार नै यो कविताको मूल भाव हो।\r\n\r\n### ४. भाव विस्तार गर्नुहोस्\r\n\r\n**(क)**\r\n> **नेपाल बाँचे नेपाली हाम्रो गौरव बाँच्ने छ**\r\n> **नेपाली भाषा संस्कृति कला साहित्य साँच्ने छ।**\r\n\r\n**भाव विस्तार:**\r\nप्रस्तुत कवितांश कवि मुकुन्दशरण उपाध्यायद्वारा रचित राष्ट्रप्रेमको भावनाले ओतप्रोत \'नेपाली हाम्रो श्रम र सिप\' शीर्षकको कविताबाट साभार गरिएको हो। यस अंशमा कविले देशको अस्तित्व र नागरिकको पहिचानबीचको अविभाज्य सम्बन्धलाई उजागर गरेका छन्। देश रहे मात्रै नागरिकको गौरव, भाषा, संस्कृति र पहिचान जीवित रहन्छ भन्ने गहिरो भाव यहाँ व्यक्त भएको छ।\r\n\r\nहाम्रो पहिचान \'नेपाली\' हुनुको एकमात्र आधार \'नेपाल\' देश हो। यदि देशको अस्तित्व नै सङ्कटमा पर्‍यो भने हाम्रो राष्ट्रिय गौरव, स्वाभिमान र पहिचान स्वतः समाप्त हुन्छ। नेपाल रहेसम्म मात्र हामी सगरमाथाको देश, बुद्धको जन्मभूमि र वीर गोर्खालीको सन्तान भनेर विश्वमा गर्व गर्न सक्छौँ। देश नरहे हाम्रो यो गौरवपूर्ण पहिचान गुमनाम हुनेछ। त्यसैगरी, हाम्रो भाषा, संस्कृति, कला र साहित्यको जग पनि यही देश हो। नेपालको भौगोलिक र सामाजिक परिवेशमा नै यी सम्पदाहरू विकसित भएका हुन्। देशको रक्षा हुन सके मात्र यी अमूल्य धरोहरहरू संरक्षित हुन्छन् र भावी पुस्तामा हस्तान्तरण हुन सक्छन्। हाम्रा पुर्खाहरूले रगत-पसिनाले जोगाएको यो देश र यसको गौरवलाई जीवित राख्ने जिम्मेवारी अब हाम्रो काँधमा छ।\r\n\r\nयसरी, यी पङ्क्तिहरूले देशको सार्वभौमिकता र हाम्रो राष्ट्रिय पहिचानबीचको गहिरो सम्बन्धलाई दर्शाउँदै हामी सबैलाई देशरक्षाको महान् कार्यमा एकजुट हुन प्रेरणा दिएका छन्।\r\n\r\n**(ख)**\r\n> **आशिष देऊ एकै र फेरि पसिना बगाऊँ**\r\n> **नेपाली हाम्रो श्रम र सिप स्वदेशमै लगाऊँ।**\r\n\r\n**भाव विस्तार:**\r\nउक्त कवितांश \'नेपाली हाम्रो श्रम र सिप\' कविताबाटै उद्धृत गरिएको हो, जसमा कविले देश विकासका लागि श्रम र समर्पणको महत्त्वलाई प्रस्तुत गरेका छन्। यी पङ्क्तिहरूमा नेपाल आमासँग आफ्नै भूमिमा पसिना बगाउने शक्ति र अवसरका लागि आशिष मागिएको छ, जसले कविको गहिरो स्वदेशप्रेमलाई दर्शाउँछ।\r\n\r\nकुनै पनि देशको विकास र समृद्धि त्यस देशका नागरिकको श्रम, सिप र पसिनाले मात्र सम्भव छ। हामी केवल भाग्यको भर परेर वा अल्छी बनेर बस्यौँ भने देश झन्-झन् पछाडि धकेलिन्छ। यस सन्दर्भमा, कविले हामी सबै नेपालीलाई नेपाल आमासँग यही पवित्र भूमिमा मिहिनेत गर्न पाउँ भन्ने आशिष माग्न आग्रह गरेका छन्। विदेशमा गएर पसिना बगाउनुभन्दा आफ्नै देशमा श्रम र सिपको सदुपयोग गर्नु बुद्धिमानी हो। आफ्नै देशमा गरिएको सानो परिश्रमले पनि राष्ट्र निर्माणमा ठुलो योगदान पुऱ्याउँछ। देशको विकास भए मात्र हामी सबै नेपाली सुखी, खुसी र सम्मानित जीवन जिउन सक्छौँ। त्यसैले, हामीले विदेशप्रतिको मोह त्यागेर आफ्ना कमजोरीहरूलाई हटाई पूर्ण क्षमताका साथ देशको उत्थानमा लाग्नुपर्छ।\r\n\r\nअतः सरल र मिठो भाषामा व्यक्त यी हरफले हामीलाई देशमै श्रम गरेर राष्ट्रलाई आत्मनिर्भर र समृद्ध बनाउन योगदान गर्नुपर्छ भन्ने महान् सन्देश दिएको छ।\r\n\r\n### ५. \'नेपाली हाम्रो श्रम र सिप\' कविताको भाव समीक्षा गर्नुहोस्।\r\n\r\n**समीक्षा:**\r\nकवि मुकुन्दशरण उपाध्यायद्वारा रचित \'नेपाली हाम्रो श्रम र सिप\' राष्ट्रिय चेतना र जागरणको भावले भरिएको एक उत्कृष्ट कविता हो। झ्याउरे लयमा लेखिएको यो कविताले पाठकलाई देशभक्तिको भावनामा डुबाउँदै आफ्नो श्रम र सिपलाई राष्ट्र निर्माणमा लगाउन प्रेरित गर्दछ। कवितामा नेपालको गौरव, यहाँको सम्भावना र नेपाली नागरिकको कर्तव्यलाई कलात्मक रूपमा प्रस्तुत गरिएको छ।\r\n\r\nकविताको प्रारम्भमा कविले नेपालको महानताको गुणगान गरेका छन्। वेद, मुन्धुम र धम्मपद जस्ता महान् दर्शनहरूको उद्गमस्थल यो भूमि ज्ञान र अध्यात्मले पवित्र भएको भाव व्यक्त गरिएको छ। कविताले नेपाली-नेपालीबीचको एकतालाई जोड दिँदै एकको दुःखमा सबै दुःखी हुनुपर्ने र सबैको सुखमा सबै खुसी हुनुपर्ने सन्देश दिन्छ। देशको अपार प्राकृतिक स्रोत र सम्भावनालाई कवितामा उजागर गरिएको छ। पहाडको सौन्दर्यलाई सही उपयोग गर्न सके पर्यटनबाट देशले काँचुली फेर्न सक्ने र तराईको उर्वर भूमिमा सिँचाइको व्यवस्था गर्न सके कृषिमा आत्मनिर्भर भई सुन फलाउन सकिने आशा देखाइएको छ।\r\n\r\nयति धेरै सम्भावना भएर पनि हामी पछाडि पर्नुको कारण हाम्रो \'आलस्य निद्रा\' र \'हीनता\' हो भन्ने कविको ठहर छ। श्रमले मरुभूमिलाई त हराभरा बनाउन सक्छ भने प्राकृतिक वरदानले भरिएको हाम्रो देशलाई समृद्ध बनाउन असम्भव छैन। यसका लागि हामी सबैले \'होस्टेमा हैंसे\' गर्दै पवित्र मनले यही माटोमा पसिना बगाउनुपर्छ। कविताको अन्त्यमा, नेपाल आमासँग देशमै श्रम गर्ने आशिष माग्दै आफ्नो सम्पूर्ण सिप र क्षमता राष्ट्रको उन्नतिमा लगाउनुपर्ने आग्रह गरिएको छ।\r\n\r\nसमग्रमा, सरल शब्द र लोकलयको प्रयोग भए तापनि कविताले बोकेको भाव अत्यन्त गहिरो र शक्तिशाली छ। यसले नेपाली युवाहरूलाई विदेश पलायन हुनुको सट्टा स्वदेशमै रहेर राष्ट्र निर्माणमा जुट्न आह्वान गर्दछ। अतः यो कविता राष्ट्रिय जागरणको एक सशक्त साहित्यिक आवाज हो।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## भाषिक संरचना र वर्णविन्यास (Linguistic Structure and Spelling)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका वाक्य पढी उद्देश्य, विधेय तथा तिनको विस्तार पहिचान गर्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n**(क) ४५ वर्षका कृष्ण राय गाउँका सबभन्दा भद्र मानिस थिए।**\r\n* **उद्देश्य:** मानिस\r\n* **विधेय:** थिए\r\n\r\n**(ख) माथ्ला घरकी साहिँली दिदी असाध्यै छिटो छिटो हिँडिन् ।**\r\n* **उद्देश्य:** दिदी\r\n* **विधेय:** हिँडिन्\r\n\r\n**(ग) विचार गर्दागर्दै कृष्ण रायले रेलको डब्बामा भएको झगडा सम्झे।**\r\n* **उद्देश्य:** कृष्ण रायले\r\n* **विधेय:** सम्झे\r\n\r\n### २. दिइएका सङ्केतका आधारमा वाक्य परिवर्तन गर्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n* **(क) जब गड्गडाएर पानी पर्यो तब बाढी आयो। (सरल वाक्य)**\r\n    **उत्तरः** गड्गडाएर पानी पर्दा बाढी आयो।\r\n* **(ख) कुकुर भुक्छ। कुकुरले टोक्दैन। (मिश्र वाक्य)**\r\n    **उत्तरः** जुन कुकुर भुक्छ त्यो कुकुरले टोक्दैन।\r\n* **(ग) ऊ राम्रो पढ्छ र सफल हुन्छ। (सरल वाक्य)**\r\n    **उत्तरः** ऊ राम्रो पढेर सफल हुन्छ।\r\n* **(घ) घाम लाग्यो। न्यानो भयो। (संयुक्त वाक्य)**\r\n    **उत्तरः** घाम लाग्यो अनि न्यानो भयो।\r\n* **(ङ) म धेरै हिँडें। मेरा खुट्टा दुखे। (मिश्र वाक्य)**\r\n    **उत्तरः** जब म धेरै हिँडें तब मेरा खुट्टा दुखे।\r\n* **(च) श्रमिकले श्रम गर्छन्। श्रमिकले जीविकोपार्जन गर्छन् । (संयुक्त वाक्य)**\r\n    **उत्तरः** श्रमिकले श्रम गर्छन् र जीविकोपार्जन गर्छन्।\r\n\r\n### ३. सापेक्ष संयोजक (जुन-ती, जति-त्यति, भने, भन्ने) जोडेर पाँचओटा मिश्र वाक्य बनाउनुहोस् ।\r\n\r\n* जुन किताबहरु नयाँ छन् ती मेरा हुन्।\r\n* जति खान सक्छौ त्यति मात्र खाऊ।\r\n* तिमी आयौ भने रमाइलो हुने छ।\r\n* जहाँ शान्ति हुन्छ त्यहाँ विकास हुन्छ।\r\n* उसको प्रेमिका छ भन्ने कुरा मलाई पहिल्यै थाहा थियो।\r\n\r\n### ४. निरपेक्ष संयोजक (र, अनि, वा, अथवा, तर) जोडेर पाँचओटा संयुक्त वाक्य बनाउनुहोस् ।\r\n\r\n* यो सामग्री हेर र एक लाइक गर।\r\n* ध्यान दिएर पढ अनि बल्ल बुझिन्छ।\r\n* तिमी यता आऊ वा म त्यतै आउँछु।\r\n* म रोटी अथवा पुरी खान्छु।\r\n* माया गर तर धोका नदेऊ।\r\n\r\n### ५. श, स र ष प्रयोग भएका शब्द पहिचान र प्रयोग\r\n\r\n**(क) नेपाली हाम्रो श्रम र सिप कविताबाट श, स र ष प्रयोग भएका तीन तीनओटा शब्द लेख्नुहोस् ।**\r\n* **श प्रयोग भएका शब्द:** श्रम, स्वदेश, विशाल\r\n* **ष प्रयोग भएका शब्द:** भाषा, ऋषि, आशिष\r\n* **स प्रयोग भएका शब्द:** संस्कृति, साहित्य, सिप\r\n\r\n**(ख) दिइएको अनुच्छेदमा श, स र ष प्रयोगसम्बन्धी अशुद्धि सच्याएर पुनर्लेखन गर्नुहोस् :**\r\n* **अशुद्ध:** उसा भनेको बिहान हो र निसा भनेको षाँझ हो। हाम्रो बशोबाश षहरमा छ। राती भयो भने गाउँबाट पहरमा शजिलैसँग पुग्न शकिँदैन। नत्र धेरै कष्टषहित अँध्यारामा पहर फर्कनुपर्छ।\r\n* **शुद्ध:** **उषा** भनेको बिहान हो र **निशा** भनेको **साँझ** हो। हाम्रो **बसोबास** **सहरमा** छ। राती भयो भने गाउँबाट **सहरमा** **सजिलैसँग** पुग्न **सकिँदैन**। नत्र धेरै **कष्टसहित** अँध्यारामा **सहर** फर्कनुपर्छ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## सिर्जना र परियोजना कार्य (Creative and Project Work)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएको गजल पढ्नुहोस् र एउटा मुक्तक वा गजल तयार पार्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n**(नमुना गजल - बूँद राना)**\r\n> फरक छन् नजरको कुरा के गरूँ खै\r\n> म गाला अधरको कुरा के गरूँ खै।\r\n>\r\n> कलेटी परेको छ सुन्दै छु लाली\r\n> नमिठो खबरको कुरा के गरुँ खै।\r\n>\r\n> दिँदै दिन्न केही दिए चोट दिन्छ\r\n> निठुरी सहरको कुरा के गरुँ खै।\r\n>\r\n> बदर नै सदर छ सुन्दर नै बदर छ\r\n> सदरको बदरको कुरा के गरुँ खै।\r\n\r\n**(सिर्जित मुक्तक)**\r\n> मैले रोज्या फूल तिमी, झरे पनि माया लाग्छ\r\n> मलाई छोडी अन्तै बसाइँ, सरे पनि माया लाग्छ।\r\n>\r\n> गरिब दुःखी छु म यहाँ, थाहै थियो तिमीलाई\r\n> दुःखी भनी घृणा तिम्ले, गरे पनि माया लाग्छ\r\n>\r\n> तिम्रा आँसु पुछ्दा पुछ्दै, मेरा हात रित्ता भए\r\n> अहिले तिम्ले मलाई आँखा, तरे पनि माया लाग्छ।\r\n>\r\n> जिन्दगीका हरेक खुसी, तिमीलाई मिलोस् सधैँ\r\n> पराईको सिउँदो तिम्ले, भरे पनि माया लाग्छ।', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(71, 11207, '# शत्रु - बी.पी. कोइराला - कक्षा १० (पूर्ण विस्तृत गाइड)\r\n\r\nविश्वेश्वरप्रसाद कोइरालाद्वारा लिखित \"शत्रु\" एक उत्कृष्ट मनोवैज्ञानिक कथा हो। यसले मानव मनभित्रका जटिल भावनाहरू, सम्बन्धहरू र शत्रुताको अवधारणालाई गहिरो रूपमा विश्लेषण गर्दछ। यो गाइडले कथाका हरेक पक्षलाई विस्तृत रूपमा व्याख्या गर्दै परीक्षाका लागि आवश्यक पर्ने सबै प्रश्नहरूको गहन र पूर्ण उत्तरहरू समावेश गर्दछ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## शब्दभण्डार (Vocabulary)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका शब्दको अर्थ लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n| **शब्द (Word)** | **अर्थ (Meaning)** |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| यश | तारिफ, राम्रो काम गर्नेले पाउने इज्जत |\r\n| रैती | अरुको जग्गा कमाउने व्यक्ति, मोही |\r\n| अकलुषित | कुनै प्रकारको दुर्भावना नभएको, स्वच्छ |\r\n| भरोसा | विश्वास, भर |\r\n| गर्व | अहम् भावना, अभिमान |\r\n| झटनी | धान झाँट्ने काम, हप्काउने काम |\r\n| अप्रिय | मन नपरेको, प्यारो नभएको |\r\n| दुर्गुण | खराब स्वभाव, नराम्रो बानी |\r\n| आर्जन | कमाइ, आम्दानी |\r\n| व्यापक | चारैतिर फैलिएको, विस्तृत |\r\n\r\n### २. दिइएका शब्दलाई वाक्यमा प्रयोग गर्नुहोस् :\r\n* **सान्त्वना:** दुःखको घडीमा उनले दिएको सान्त्वनाले मलाई ठुलो राहत मिल्यो।\r\n* **सिद्धान्त:** मानिसले जीवनमा असल सिद्धान्त अङ्गालेर हिँड्न सके मात्र सफल भइन्छ।\r\n* **पुँजी:** व्यापार सुरु गर्नका लागि प्रशस्त पुँजी र सही योजनाको आवश्यकता पर्दछ।\r\n* **मध्यस्थ:** कृष्ण रायले मध्यस्थ बनेर गाउँका कैयौँ ठुला झगडाहरू मिलाएका थिए।\r\n* **फैसला:** लामो बहसपछि अदालतले दोषीलाई १० वर्ष कैदको फैसला सुनायो।\r\n* **अङ्कमाल:** लामो समयपछि भेट भएका दुई मित्रले खुसीले एकअर्कालाई अङ्कमाल गरे।\r\n* **स्वाभिमान:** हामीले देशको स्वाभिमानका लागि कसैसँग झुक्नु हुँदैन।\r\n* **धैर्य:** धैर्य र निरन्तरको मिहिनेतले नै सफलताको शिखरमा पुग्न सकिन्छ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## बोध र अभिव्यक्ति (Comprehension and Expression)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका प्रश्नको उत्तर लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n**(क) शत्रु कथाका कृष्ण रायको व्यक्तित्व कस्तो थियो ?**\r\n**उत्तरः** \"शत्रु\" कथाका मुख्य पात्र कृष्ण राय एक भद्र, शान्त र सम्मानित व्यक्तित्व थिए। उनी गाउँ समाजमा न्याय र निसाफका लागि परिचित थिए र प्रायः झगडाहरूमा मध्यस्थकर्ताको भूमिका निर्वाह गर्थे। उनी आफ्नो विवेक र न्यायशीलतामा गर्व गर्थे र सबैलाई समान न्याय दिने कोसिस गर्थे। आफ्नो स्वभाव र व्यवहारका कारण उनले आफूलाई शत्रुविहीन ठान्थे। तर, कथाको घटनाक्रमले उनको यो आदर्शवादी व्यक्तित्वमा लुकेको शङ्कालु, अन्तर्मुखी र कमजोर मानसिकतालाई उजागर गर्छ। एउटै घटनाले उनको आत्मविश्वासलाई चकनाचुर पार्छ र उनी आफ्नै दाजुभाइ, भतिजोदेखि लिएर सामान्य मानिससम्म सबैलाई शत्रु देख्न थाल्छन्। यसरी, उनी बाहिरबाट शान्त देखिए पनि भित्रभित्रै मनोवैज्ञानिक द्वन्द्वले भरिएका एक जटिल पात्रका रूपमा प्रस्तुत भएका छन्।\r\n\r\n**(ख) कृष्ण रायले किन आफूलाई शत्रुविहीन ठान्थे, वर्णन गर्नुहोस् ।**\r\n**उत्तरः** कृष्ण रायले आफूलाई शत्रुविहीन ठान्नुका पछाडि केही ठोस कारणहरू थिए। पहिलो, उनी समाजमा \"आँखामा राखे पनि नबिझाउने\" व्यक्तिका रूपमा परिचित थिए, जसको अर्थ हो, उनी सबैप्रति मिलनसार र भद्र थिए। दोस्रो, उनीसँग मानसम्मान, धनसम्पत्ति आदि सबै भौतिक सुखसुविधाहरू थिए, जसले उनलाई सन्तुष्ट बनाएको थियो। तेस्रो र सबैभन्दा महत्त्वपूर्ण कारण, उनी गाउँमा मध्यस्थकर्ताको भूमिका निर्वाह गर्थे र आफूलाई एक आदर्शवान्, निष्पक्ष र न्यायप्रेमी व्यक्ति ठान्दथे। उनले कसैलाई जानीजानी ठगेका वा दुःख दिएका थिएनन् भन्नेमा उनी विश्वस्त थिए। गाउँलेहरूले आफूलाई सम्मान र विश्वास गर्छन् भन्ने कुरामा उनलाई गर्व थियो। यिनै कारणहरूले गर्दा उनले आफ्नो जीवनमा कुनै शत्रु नै छैनन् भन्ने भ्रम पालेका थिए।\r\n\r\n**(ग) यस कथाबाट के सन्देश पाइन्छ ?**\r\n**उत्तरः** \"शत्रु\" कथाले मानिसको मनोवैज्ञानिक यथार्थलाई उजागर गर्दै धेरै महत्त्वपूर्ण सन्देशहरू दिन्छ। यसको मुख्य सन्देश हो - **कुनै पनि मानिस पूर्ण रूपमा शत्रुविहीन हुन सक्दैन।** मानिसले आफूलाई जतिसुकै निर्दोष वा आदर्शवान् ठाने पनि उसका कार्य र व्यवहारले सबै पक्षलाई सन्तुष्ट पार्न सक्दैन, जसका कारण नजानिँदो किसिमले शत्रुहरू जन्मिन्छन्। कथाले यो पनि सन्देश दिन्छ कि मानिसको मानसिक शान्तिले संसारलाई हेर्ने उसको दृष्टिकोण निर्धारण गर्दछ; मन शान्त हुँदा संसार सुन्दर देखिन्छ भने मनमा द्वन्द्व चल्दा हरेक व्यक्ति शत्रु जस्तो लाग्न थाल्छ। एउटा सानो घटनाले पनि मानिसको मनमा ठुलो उथलपुथल ल्याउन सक्छ र उसको आत्मविश्वासलाई कमजोर बनाउन सक्छ। त्यसैले, मानिसले आफूलाई कहिल्यै सर्वज्ञानी नठानी हर कदममा सचेत र चनाखो हुनुपर्छ भन्ने गहिरो मर्म यो कथाले प्रदान गर्दछ।\r\n\r\n**(घ) प्रत्येक व्यक्तिका कृष्ण रायका जस्तै नदेखिने शत्रु होलान् त, कथाका आधारमा अनुमान गर्नुहोस् ।**\r\n**उत्तरः** हो, कथाका आधारमा यो अनुमान गर्न सकिन्छ कि प्रत्येक व्यक्तिका कृष्ण रायका जस्तै नदेखिने शत्रुहरू हुन सक्छन्। कथाले यही सत्यलाई उजागर गरेको छ कि मानिस कहिल्यै शत्रुविहीन हुन सक्दैन। कृष्ण रायले आफूलाई पूर्णतः निर्दोष र सबैको प्रिय ठान्थे, तर एउटा आक्रमणले उनलाई आफ्नै विगतका कार्यहरूमा शत्रु लुकेको हुन सक्ने सत्य बोध गरायो। हामीले पनि दैनिक जीवनमा गरेका निर्णयहरू, बोलेका कुराहरू वा गरेका व्यवहारहरूले कसैको चित्त दुखाएको हुन सक्छ, जुन हामीलाई थाहा नहुन सक्छ। मानिसको स्वभाव र आचरणले मित्र र शत्रु निर्धारण गर्दछ। हामीले असल नियतले गरेको काम पनि अर्को पक्षका लागि अन्यायपूर्ण लाग्न सक्छ। त्यसैले, शत्रु कम वा बढी त होलान्, तर समाजमा रहँदा नदेखिने वा थाहै नपाइएका शत्रुहरू अवश्य हुन्छन् भन्ने कुरामा विश्वास गर्न सकिन्छ।\r\n\r\n### २. व्याख्या गर्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n**(क) कुनै पनि मध्यस्थ दुवै पक्षको समर्थक हुन सक्दैन ।**\r\n**उत्तरः**\r\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:** यो गहिरो अर्थ बोकेको कथांश मनोवैज्ञानिक कथाकार विश्वेश्वरप्रसाद कोइरालाद्वारा लिखित \"शत्रु\" शीर्षकको कथाबाट साभार गरिएको हो। कथाका मुख्य पात्र कृष्ण रायमाथि रहस्यमय लट्ठी प्रहार भइसकेपछि, उनले आफ्नो विगतको समीक्षा गर्ने क्रममा यो कटु सत्यको बोध गर्छन्। आफूले गर्व गर्ने मध्यस्थताको कामले नै शत्रु जन्माएको हुन सक्ने निष्कर्षमा पुग्दा यो विचार उनको मनमा आएको हो।\r\n\r\n**व्याख्या:** कृष्ण राय गाउँका एक प्रतिष्ठित र भद्र व्यक्ति थिए, जसले आफ्नो जीवनमा कसैको कुभलो चिताएका थिएनन्। उनी झगडाहरूमा मध्यस्थकर्ता बनेर निष्पक्ष न्याय दिने काममा गर्व गर्थे। तर, जब उनीमाथि आक्रमण भयो, उनको यो विश्वास टुट्यो। उनले आफ्ना पुराना घटनाहरू सम्झन थाले, जस्तै गोविन्द पण्डित र गोरे जमदारको झगडामा उनले जमदारको पक्षमा फैसला दिएका थिए। त्यो फैसला न्यायपूर्ण भए पनि त्यसले गोविन्द पण्डितलाई अवश्य पनि असन्तुष्ट बनायो। यसैगरी, हरेक मध्यस्थतामा एउटा पक्षले न्याय पाउँदा अर्को पक्ष हार्न पुग्छ। हार्ने पक्षले मध्यस्थलाई कहिल्यै पनि आफ्नो समर्थक मान्दैन, बरु आफ्नो विरोधी वा शत्रुको रूपमा हेर्न सक्छ। कृष्ण रायले बल्ल बुझे कि न्यायको काम निर्दोष भए तापनि यसले अनिवार्य रूपमा एक पक्षलाई असन्तुष्ट बनाउँछ।\r\n\r\n**निष्कर्ष:** यसरी, प्रस्तुत कथांशले सामाजिक यथार्थको तितो सत्यलाई उजागर गरेको छ। जतिसुकै निष्पक्ष हुन खोजे पनि मध्यस्थको भूमिकामा रहेको व्यक्तिले दुवै पक्षलाई एकैसाथ खुसी बनाउन सक्दैन। न्याय दिने क्रममा अनिवार्य रूपमा एक पक्षको शत्रु बन्नुपर्ने रहेछ भन्ने गहिरो मनोवैज्ञानिक र सामाजिक ज्ञान यस अंशले दिएको छ।\r\n\r\n**(ख) कस्तो अचम्म, निर्दोष कुरामा पनि विषालु साँप जस्तो बैरी बनाउने साधन लुकिरहेको देखिन्छ ।**\r\n**उत्तरः**\r\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:** यो मार्मिक कथांश बी.पी. कोइरालाको प्रसिद्ध मनोवैज्ञानिक कथा \"शत्रु\" बाट लिइएको हो। कथाका मुख्य पात्र कृष्ण रायले आफूमाथि भएको आक्रमणपछि आफ्ना विगतका निर्दोष लाग्ने कार्यहरूलाई समेत शङ्काको दृष्टिले हेर्न थाल्दा उनको मनमा उत्पन्न भएको निराशा र आश्चर्यको भाव यस अंशमा व्यक्त भएको छ।\r\n\r\n**व्याख्या:** कृष्ण राय आफूलाई सधैँ एक आदर्श र निर्दोष व्यक्ति ठान्थे। उनले गाउँमा मध्यस्थता गरेर मानिसहरूलाई ठुलो गुन लगाएको महसुस गर्थे। तर, आक्रमणको घटनाले उनलाई झस्काइदियो। उनले महसुस गरे कि जसरी झाडीमा लुकेर बसेको विषालु सर्पलाई सजिलै देख्न सकिँदैन र त्यसले एक्कासि आक्रमण गरेपछि मात्र थाहा हुन्छ, त्यसैगरी हामीले निर्दोष ठानेर गरेका कामहरूभित्र पनि शत्रुताको विष लुकेको हुन सक्छ। उनले गरेका फैसलाहरू, उनले बोलेका सामान्य वचनहरू वा उनले गरेका सामान्य व्यवहारहरूले पनि कसैको मनमा इर्ष्या, रिस वा बदलाको भावना जन्माएको हुन सक्छ, जुन उनले कहिल्यै पत्तो पाएनन्। जुन कामलाई उनी पुण्य सम्झन्थे, त्यही काम नै शत्रु जन्माउने साधन बनेको देखेर उनी अचम्मित र दुःखी हुन्छन्।\r\n\r\n**निष्कर्ष:** अतः प्रस्तुत कथांशले मानव सम्बन्धको जटिलतालाई सुन्दर ढङ्गले प्रस्तुत गरेको छ। यसले हामीलाई सचेत गराउँछ कि जतिसुकै निर्दोष र असल रहन खोजे पनि हाम्रा कार्यहरूले नजानिँदो किसिमले शत्रुहरू बनाइरहेका हुन सक्छन्। त्यसैले, मानिसले कहिल्यै पनि आफूलाई पूर्ण निर्दोष ठान्नु हुँदैन।\r\n\r\n### ३. शत्रु कथाका आधारमा कृष्ण रायका मनमा उब्जिएका मानसिक उतारचढावलाई समीक्षा गर्नुहोस्।\r\n**उत्तरः**\r\nविश्वेश्वरप्रसाद कोइरालाद्वारा लिखित \"शत्रु\" कथाले मुख्य पात्र कृष्ण रायको मानसिक जगत्मा आएको उथलपुथललाई अत्यन्तै कलात्मक ढङ्गले प्रस्तुत गरेको छ। यो कथा कृष्ण रायको शान्त र आत्मविश्वासी मनबाट शङ्कालु र विक्षिप्त मनसम्मको मनोवैज्ञानिक यात्राको जीवन्त दस्तावेज हो।\r\n\r\n**आक्रमणपूर्वको शान्त अवस्था:** कथाको प्रारम्भमा कृष्ण राय एक स्थिर र सन्तुलित मानसिकता भएका व्यक्ति देखिन्छन्। उनी गाउँका भद्र, प्रतिष्ठित र सम्मानित मध्यस्थकर्ता हुन्। आफ्नो जीवन, सम्पत्ति र सम्मानप्रति उनी पूर्ण सन्तुष्ट छन्। उनमा \"मेरा कुनै शत्रु छैनन्\" भन्ने गहिरो आत्मविश्वास छ। यो उनको मनको शान्त र स्थिर अवस्था हो, जहाँ कुनै द्वन्द्व वा शङ्का छैन।\r\n\r\n**आक्रमणपछिको मनोवैज्ञानिक हुरी:** जब उनीमाथि अचानक लट्ठी प्रहार हुन्छ, उनको यो शान्त मनको जग हल्लिन्छ। यो घटना उनको जीवनको \'टर्निङ प्वाइन्ट\' बन्छ, जसले उनको मनमा शङ्का, चिन्ता, तनाव र तर्कको एक विशाल हुरी चलाइदिन्छ। उनको आत्मविश्वास टुटेर जान्छ र उनी आफूमाथि कसले आक्रमण गर्‍यो होला भन्ने प्रश्नको जटिल जालमा फस्छन्।\r\n\r\n**शङ्का र विखण्डनको चरण:** आक्रमणकारीको खोजी गर्ने क्रममा उनको मनले आफ्ना सबै सम्बन्धहरूलाई शङ्काको दृष्टिले हेर्न थाल्छ। उनले मध्यस्थता गरेका मानिसहरू (गोविन्द पण्डित), घरबाट निकालेका नोकरहरू, ईर्ष्यालु दाजुभाइ, र यहाँसम्म कि आफ्नै धर्मपुत्रलाई समेत शत्रुको रूपमा देख्न थाल्छन्। उनको मन यति तल झर्छ कि हरेक व्यक्ति र हरेक घटनामा उनले शत्रुताको सम्भावना देख्छन्। यसले उनको व्यक्तित्वलाई नै विखण्डित बनाइदिन्छ।\r\n\r\n**निष्कर्ष:** समग्रमा, यो कथाले एउटा सानो घटनाले कसरी मानिसको सम्पूर्ण आत्मविश्वास र विश्वदृष्टिकोणलाई तहसनहस पार्न सक्छ भन्ने मनोवैज्ञानिक यथार्थलाई उजागर गरेको छ। कृष्ण रायको मानसिक उतारचढावको चित्रणमार्फत कोइरालाले मानव मनको कमजोरी र असुरक्षाको भावनालाई सफलतापूर्वक देखाएका छन्। कथाले प्रमाणित गर्छ कि मानिस बाहिरबाट जतिसुकै बलियो देखिए पनि भित्रभित्रै ऊ शङ्का र डरले कमजोर हुन सक्छ।', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56'),
(72, 11210, '# व्यावसायिक चिठी - कक्षा १० (विस्तृत गाइड)\r\n\r\nकक्षा १० को नेपाली पाठ्यपुस्तकको अध्याय १०, \"व्यावसायिक चिठी\" ले विद्यार्थीहरूलाई व्यावसायिक पत्र, निवेदन र औपचारिक पत्राचारको संसारसँग परिचित गराउँछ। व्यावसायिक क्षेत्रमा प्रभावकारी सञ्चारको कला बुझ्नु आवश्यक छ, र यो अध्यायले विद्यार्थीहरूलाई व्यावसायिक सन्दर्भमा प्रभावकारी पत्र र निवेदनहरू लेख्न आवश्यक सीपहरू प्रदान गर्दछ। यो विस्तृत गाइडले परीक्षाको तयारीका लागि सबै प्रश्नहरूको गहिरो र पूर्ण उत्तरहरू समावेश गर्दछ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## शब्दभण्डार (Vocabulary)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका शब्दको अर्थ र वाक्यमा प्रयोग लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n| **शब्द (Word)** | **अर्थ (Meaning)** | **वाक्यमा प्रयोग** |\r\n| :--- | :--- | :--- |\r\n| भुक्तानी | मूल्य तिर्ने काम | सामान खरिद गरेपछि त्यसको **भुक्तानी** तुरुन्तै गर्नुपर्छ। |\r\n| अत्यधिक | ज्यादै धेरै | **अत्यधिक** वर्षाका कारण खोलामा बाढी आएको छ। |\r\n| उपत्यका | चारैतिरबाट पहाडले घेरिएको सम्म ठाउँ | काठमाडौँ **उपत्यका** नेपालको सबैभन्दा घना बस्ती भएको ठाउँ हो। |\r\n| ब्रोकाउली | काउली प्रजातिको हरियो तरकारी | **ब्रोकाउली** स्वास्थ्यका लागि निकै लाभदायक मानिन्छ। |\r\n| कृषक | खेतीपाती गर्ने मानिस, किसान | मेहनती **कृषक** देशका गहना हुन्। |\r\n| नगदेबाली | नगद आम्दानी हुने कृषिबाली | चिया, कफी र अलैँची नेपालका प्रमुख **नगदेबाली** हुन्। |\r\n| तपसिल | निम्नलिखित, तल उल्लेखित विवरण | आवश्यक कागजातहरूको विवरण **तपसिल** बमोजिम रहेको छ। |\r\n\r\n### २. मौलिक र आगन्तुक शब्द पहिचान गर्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\nपाठको अनुच्छेदले मौलिक र आगन्तुक शब्दबारे स्पष्ट पारेको छ।\r\n* **मौलिक शब्द:** संस्कृत भाषाबाट जस्ताको तस्तै (तत्सम) वा केही परिवर्तन भएर (तद्भव) नेपाली भाषामा आएका शब्दहरू मौलिक शब्द हुन्। जस्तै: `अश्रु` (तत्सम), `आँसु` (तद्भव), `घर`, `काम`, `गर्नु` आदि।\r\n* **आगन्तुक शब्द:** नेपालभित्रका अन्य भाषाहरू वा विदेशी भाषाहरूबाट नेपाली भाषामा भित्रिएका शब्दहरू आगन्तुक शब्द हुन्। जस्तै: `पसल`, `डम्फु` (नेपालभित्रका), `स्कुल`, `डाक्टर`, `किताब`, `कानुन` (विदेशी भाषाबाट)।\r\n\r\n### ३. अनुच्छेदबाट निर्देशनअनुसार शब्द पहिचान गरी लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n* **(क) तद्भव र आगन्तुक:**\r\n    * **तद्भव:** झगडा, घर\r\n    * **आगन्तुक:** फैसला, कम\r\n* **(ख) तत्सम र आगन्तुक:**\r\n    * **तत्सम:** दुर्घटना, गम्भीरता\r\n    * **आगन्तुक:** सवारी, जिम्मेवार\r\n* **(ग) तत्सम र तद्भव:**\r\n    * **तत्सम:** परम्परागत, सहायता\r\n    * **तद्भव:** खेती, मधेस\r\n* **(घ) तत्सम र आगन्तुक:**\r\n    * **तत्सम:** वायुमण्डल, विभिन्न\r\n    * **आगन्तुक:** ग्याँस, नाइट्रोजन\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## बोध र अभिव्यक्ति (Comprehension and Expression)\r\n\r\n### १. व्यावसायिक चिठीको प्रत्युत्तर लेख्नुहोस् :\r\nपाठ्यपुस्तकमा दिइएको व्यावसायिक चिठीको प्रत्युत्तर तलको नमुना अनुसार तयार गर्न सकिन्छ। यसले व्यावसायिकता, स्पष्टता र सबै आवश्यक विवरणहरू समेटेको छ।\r\n\r\n**शीतोष्ण बागवानी केन्द्र**\r\nघरपझोङ गाउँपालिका-२\r\nमुस्ताङ, गण्डकी प्रदेश, नेपाल\r\n\r\n**प.सं.:** ०७९/८०\r\n**च.नं.:** १२५\r\n**मिति:** २०८०/०५/१४\r\n\r\nश्री प्रबन्धकज्यू,\r\nशीतोष्ण बागवानी केन्द्र,\r\nथाहा नगरपालिका - ४, दामन\r\nमकवानपुर, बाग्मती प्रदेश।\r\n\r\n**विषय: बिउबिजन उपलब्ध गराइएको सम्बन्धमा।**\r\n\r\nमहोदय,\r\n\r\nउपर्युक्त सम्बन्धमा त्यस केन्द्रबाट मिति २०८०/०५/१० मा प्रेषित पत्र प्राप्त भयो। हाम्रो केन्द्रको वेबसाइटमार्फत जानकारी लिई हिमाली क्षेत्रका लागि उपयुक्त विभिन्न बिउबिजनको माग गर्नुभएकोमा हार्दिक धन्यवाद ज्ञापन गर्दछौँ। मुस्ताङका उत्पादनहरू मकवानपुरसम्म पुऱ्याउन पाउनु हाम्रा लागि गौरवको विषय हो।\r\n\r\nतपाईंको मागपत्रमा उल्लेख भएबमोजिमका सम्पूर्ण बिउबिजनहरू आजैका मितिमा मुस्ताङ ट्रान्सपोर्ट प्रा.लि. मार्फत त्यस केन्द्रको ठेगानामा पठाइएको व्यहोरा सहर्ष जानकारी गराउँदछौँ। बिउबिजनको विस्तृत विवरण र भुक्तानी गर्नुपर्ने रकम उल्लेख भएको बिल यसै पत्रसाथ संलग्न गरिएको छ।\r\n\r\nउक्त सामान र बिल प्राप्त हुनासाथ यस केन्द्रको राष्ट्रिय वाणिज्य बैङ्क, जोमसोम शाखामा रहेको चल्ती खाता नं. **१२३४५६७८९** मा बिलमा तोकिएअनुसारको रकम जम्मा गरिदिनुहुन अनुरोध छ। आगामी दिनमा पनि यस्तै व्यावसायिक सहकार्यको अपेक्षा राख्दछौँ।\r\n\r\nभवदीय,\r\n(हस्ताक्षर)\r\n**मोहन शेर्पा**\r\n**प्रबन्धक**\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### २. शैक्षिक भ्रमणको प्रबन्ध मिलाउन प्रधानाध्यापकलाई निवेदन लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\nमिति: २०८०/०४/२०\r\n\r\nश्री प्रधानाध्यापकज्यू,\r\nजनता माध्यमिक विद्यालय,\r\nबुटवल, रुपन्देही।\r\n\r\n**विषय: शैक्षिक भ्रमणको प्रबन्ध मिलाइदिनुहुन।**\r\n\r\nमहोदय,\r\n\r\nउपर्युक्त विषयमा हामी कक्षा १० मा अध्ययनरत विद्यार्थीहरू सैद्धान्तिक ज्ञानलाई व्यावहारिक र जीवन्त बनाउने उद्देश्यले एक शैक्षिक भ्रमणमा जान इच्छुक छौँ। \'सुने बिर्सन्छु, देखे सम्झन्छु, गरे जान्दछु\' भन्ने भनाइले पनि प्रत्यक्ष अवलोकन र अनुभवबाट सिकिने शिक्षाको महत्त्वलाई दर्शाउँछ। विशेषगरी सामाजिक र नेपाली विषयका पाठ्यक्रममा समावेश गरिएका विभिन्न भौगोलिक, सांस्कृतिक र ऐतिहासिक स्थलहरूको प्रत्यक्ष अवलोकनले हाम्रो सिकाईलाई अझ प्रभावकारी र दिगो बनाउने कुरामा हामी विश्वस्त छौँ।\r\n\r\nशैक्षिक भ्रमणले हामीलाई देशका विभिन्न ठाउँको सामाजिक, सांस्कृतिक परिवेश, जीवनशैली र सम्पदाहरूसँग परिचित हुने अवसर प्रदान गर्दछ। यसका लागि हामी कक्षा १० का सम्पूर्ण विद्यार्थीहरू पूर्ण रूपमा सहमत छौँ र आवश्यक परेमा अभिभावकको सहमति पत्र तथा तोकिएको शुल्क बुझाउन पनि तयार छौँ।\r\n\r\nतसर्थ, हाम्रो शैक्षिक विकासका लागि यो भ्रमण अपरिहार्य रहेकाले हाम्रो कक्षाका लागि उपयुक्त रुट, समय र यातायातसहितको सम्पूर्ण आवश्यक प्रबन्ध मिलाइदिनुहुन विनम्र अनुरोध गर्दछौँ।\r\n\r\nभवदीय,\r\n**कक्षा १० मा अध्ययनरत सम्पूर्ण छात्रछात्राहरू**\r\nजनता माध्यमिक विद्यालय\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### ३. समाजसेवीलाई सम्मान गरेको कार्यक्रमको समाचार लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n**समाजसेवी हेमराज ओझा सम्मानित**\r\n\r\n**भदौ १२, कञ्चनपुर** – स्थानीय शिक्षाविद् तथा अग्रज समाजसेवी श्री हेमराज ओझालाई श्री कृष्ण माध्यमिक विद्यालयले आज एक भव्य समारोहका बिच सम्मान गरेको छ। विद्यालयको ५८ औं वार्षिकोत्सवको अवसरमा आयोजित कार्यक्रममा ओझाले समाजसेवा तथा शिक्षाको क्षेत्रमा पुऱ्याउनुभएको अतुलनीय योगदानको कदर गर्दै सम्मान गरिएको हो।\r\n\r\nजिल्लाकै अग्रणी शैक्षिक संस्थाको रूपमा परिचित यस विद्यालयलाई गत वर्ष मात्र समाजसेवी ओझाले आफ्ना स्वर्गीय दाजु निर्मलकुमार ओझाको स्मृतिमा रु. दस लाखको अक्षयकोष स्थापना गर्नुभएको थियो। उक्त कोषबाट हरेक वर्ष गरिब तथा जेहेनदार विद्यार्थीहरूलाई छात्रवृत्ति प्रदान गरिँदै आएको छ।\r\n\r\nसम्मान ग्रहणपछि बोल्दै ओझाले भन्नुभयो, \"यस सम्मानले मलाई समाजसेवाका क्षेत्रमा लाग्न थप ऊर्जा र जिम्मेवारी बोध गराएको छ। आगामी दिनमा पनि मेरो सहयोग यस विद्यालय र समाजका लागि निरन्तर रहनेछ।\" कार्यक्रममा विद्यालयका प्रधानाध्यापकले ओझाको योगदानको उच्च प्रशंसा गर्दै उहाँ सबैका लागि प्रेरणाको स्रोत भएको बताउनुभयो।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### ४. कविता प्रकाशन गर्न अनुरोध गर्दै सम्पादकलाई चिठी लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\nमिति: २०८०/०६/१५\r\n\r\nश्री सम्पादकज्यू,\r\nआँकुरा साहित्यिक पत्रिका,\r\nकाठमाडौँ, नेपाल।\r\n\r\n**विषय: कविता प्रकाशन गरी दिने सम्बन्धमा।**\r\n\r\nमहोदय,\r\n\r\nम तपाईंको लोकप्रिय साहित्यिक पत्रिका \'आँकुरा\'को एक नियमित पाठक हुँ। यस पत्रिकामा प्रकाशित अग्रज तथा नवोदित साहित्यकारहरूका उत्कृष्ट सिर्जनाहरू पढेर मलाई पनि साहित्य लेखन, विशेषगरी कविता लेखनतर्फ गहिरो अभिरुचि जागेको छ।\r\n\r\nमैले हालसम्म दुईवटा कापी भरिने गरी कविताहरू लेखेकी छु, जसलाई मेरा साथीहरू र गुरुहरूले निकै मन पराउनुभएको छ। \'आँकुरा\' जस्तो राष्ट्रियस्तरको प्रतिष्ठित पत्रिकामा मेरो एउटा कविता प्रकाशन हुन पाएँ भने मलाई लेखन यात्रामा अघि बढ्न थप हौसला र प्रेरणा मिल्ने थियो भन्ने विश्वास लिएकी छु।\r\n\r\nत्यसैले, यसै पत्रसाथ \"मेरो देश\" शीर्षकको मेरो मौलिक कविता संलग्न गरेकी छु। कृपया मेरो कवितालाई आफ्नो पत्रिकाको आगामी अङ्कमा स्थान दिएर म जस्तो एक नवोदित प्रतिभालाई प्रस्फुटन हुने अवसर प्रदान गरिदिनुहुन विनम्र अनुरोध गर्दछु।\r\n\r\nभवदीय,\r\n(हस्ताक्षर)\r\n**विनिता कुर्मी**\r\n**रुपन्देही**\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## भाषिक संरचना र वर्णविन्यास (Linguistic Structure and Spelling)\r\n\r\n### १. करण र अकरण क्रियापद छुट्याउनुहोस् :\r\n**अनुच्छेद:** गौरवले गहुँको रोटी खान्छन् भने मैदाको रोटी खाँदैनन्। सलिनाले स्याउ असाध्यै रुचाउँछिन् भने सुन्तला त्यति रुचाउँदिनन्। सुदीक्षा सधैं सबैसँग बोल्छिन् तर तिनै कहिलेकाहीँ सबैसँग बोल्दिनन्।\r\n\r\n| **करण क्रियापद (Affirmative)** | **अकरण क्रियापद (Negative)** |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| खान्छन् | खाँदैनन् |\r\n| रुचाउँछिन् | रुचाउँदिनन् |\r\n| बोल्छिन् | बोल्दिनन् |\r\n\r\n### २. कोष्ठकमा दिइएका सङ्केतका आधारमा वाक्य परिवर्तन गर्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n* **(क) मलाई कोदोको रोटी मिठो लाग्दैन। (करण)**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** मलाई कोदोको रोटी मिठो लाग्छ।\r\n* **(ख) प्रज्ञान सधैं कक्षामा प्रश्न सोध्छ। (अकरण)**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** प्रज्ञान कहिल्यै कक्षामा प्रश्न सोध्दैन।\r\n* **(ग) ऊ छुट्टीमा ऐतिहासिक सिन्धुलीगढी घुम्न जाला। (अकरण)**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** ऊ छुट्टीमा ऐतिहासिक सिन्धुलीगढी घुम्न नजाला।\r\n* **(घ) परिश्रम गरे सफल भइन्छ। (अकरण)**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** परिश्रम नगरे सफल भइँदैन।\r\n\r\n### ३. ब र व प्रयोगसम्बन्धी अशुद्धि सच्याएर पुनर्लेखन गर्नुहोस् :\r\n**अशुद्ध:** वालक बेद पढ्न बेदबिद्याश्रम वनकालीमा भर्ना भएछन्। उनी २० बर्षको उमेरमा बिए बा सोसरहको शास्त्री पढेपछि बेदाचार्य गर्न बाल्मीकि बिद्यापीठमा भर्ना भएछन्।\r\n\r\n**शुद्ध:** **बालक** **वेद** पढ्न **वेदविद्याश्रम** **वनकालीमा** भर्ना भएछन्। उनी २० **वर्षको** उमेरमा **बिए** **वा** सोसरहको शास्त्री पढेपछि **वेदाचार्य** गर्न **वाल्मीकि** **विद्यापीठमा** भर्ना भएछन्।', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-05 03:15:56');
INSERT INTO `course_notes_content` (`id`, `topic_id`, `content`, `markdown_format`, `created_at`, `updated_at`) VALUES
(73, 11208, '# लक्ष्मीप्रसाद देवकोटा - कक्षा १० (पूर्ण विस्तृत गाइड)\n\nनेपाली साहित्यका महाकवि लक्ष्मीप्रसाद देवकोटाको यो जीवनीले विद्यार्थीहरूलाई उहाँको असाधारण साहित्यिक योगदान र नेपाली आधुनिक साहित्यमा उहाँको अग्रणी भूमिकाबारे परिचय गराउँछ। यो विस्तृत गाइडले जीवनीका हरेक पक्ष, मुख्य विषयवस्तु, विश्लेषण र अभ्यासका सबै प्रश्नहरूको गहन र पूर्ण उत्तरहरू समावेश गर्दछ, जसले विद्यार्थीहरूलाई देवकोटाको विरासतको कदर गर्न र अध्ययनमा उत्कृष्टता हासिल गर्न मद्दत गर्नेछ।\n\n---\n\n## शब्दभण्डार (Vocabulary)\n\n### १. दिइएका शब्द र तिनका अर्थबिच जोडा मिलाउनुहोस् :\n\n| **शब्द** | **अर्थ** |\n| :--- | :--- |\n| युगपुरुष | कुनै निश्चित समयसीमाभित्र महान् व्यक्तित्व स्थापित गर्न सफल व्यक्ति |\n| नक्षत्र | ज्योतिष शास्त्रअनुसार मानिसको असल खराब अवस्थाका सूचक |\n| जीवन | शरीरमा प्राण रहेसम्मको अवस्था |\n| धडाधड | चाँडो चाँडो काम सिध्याउने गरी, धमाधम |\n| म्याट्रिकुलेसन | हालको एस.ई.ई. सरहको परीक्षा |\n| प्रज्वलित | एकदम बलेको, दन्केको |\n| परिवेष्टित | चारैतिरबाट घेरिएको |\n\n### २. रेखाङ्कन गरिएका सङ्क्षिप्त शब्दका पूरा रूप लेखी पुनर्लेखन गर्नुहोस् :\n**उत्तर:** **राष्ट्रिय समाचार समिति**का पत्रकार मोहन **प्रधानमन्त्री**को अन्तर्वार्ता लिएर घर गए। उनकी श्रीमती रमा जनता **माध्यमिक विद्यालय**मा **प्रधानाध्यापक** थिइन्। **विद्यालय व्यवस्थापन समिति**को बैठक सकेर निस्कँदा उनलाई ढिलो भएछ। बाटामा **त्रिभुवन विश्वविद्यालय**का **उपप्राध्यापक** दावासँग र **प्रमुख जिल्ला अधिकारी** रमेशसँग रमाको भेट भएछ। उनीहरू एकछिन कुराकानी गरेर आआफ्ना घरतिर लागेछन्। रमा घर पुग्दा पत्रकार मोहन **गोरखापत्र**मा प्रकाशित समाचार पढेर बसेका रहेछन्।\n\n### ३. दिइएका पद पदावलीलाई आशय खुल्ने गरी वाक्यमा प्रयोग गर्नुहोस् :\n* **पठनपाठन:** कोरोना महामारीका कारण लामो समयदेखि विद्यालयमा **पठनपाठन** अवरुद्ध भएको थियो।\n* **देहावसान हुनु:** राष्ट्रकवि माधवप्रसाद घिमिरेको १०१ वर्षको उमेरमा **देहावसान भएको थियो**।\n* **मन्त्रमुग्ध पार्नु:** उस्तादको शास्त्रीय सङ्गीतले सबै स्रोतालाई **मन्त्रमुग्ध पार्‍यो**।\n* **स्वर्णकाल:** धेरै मानिसहरू आफ्नो बाल्यकाललाई नै जीवनको **स्वर्णकाल** मान्छन्।\n* **भुलभुलैया:** भौतिक सुखसुविधाको यो संसार एक **भुलभुलैया** जस्तै हो, जहाँ मानिस हराउन सक्छ।\n* **नवजात शिशु:** **नवजात शिशु**लाई न्यानो र हेरचाहको अत्यधिक आवश्यकता पर्दछ।\n\n---\n\n## बोध र अभिव्यक्ति (Comprehension and Expression)\n\n### १. दिइएका घटना कुन-कुन सालमा भएका हुन्, जीवनीका आधारमा लेख्नुहोस् :\n\n* **लक्ष्मीप्रसाद देवकोटाको जन्म:** वि.सं. १९६६\n* **अङ्ग्रेजी पढ्न दरबार हाइस्कुलमा भर्ना:** वि.सं. १९७७\n* **मनदेवी चालिसेसँग विवाह:** वि.सं. १९८१\n* **म्याट्रिकुलेसन परीक्षा उत्तीर्ण:** वि.सं. १९८२\n* **आई.एस्सी. परीक्षा उत्तीर्ण:** वि.सं. १९८५\n* **डा. के.आई. सिंहको मन्त्रिमण्डलमा शिक्षामन्त्रीमा नियुक्त:** वि.सं. २०१३\n* **अफ्र्रो-एसियाली लेखक सम्मेलनमा सहभागी:** वि.सं. २०१५\n\n### २. दिइएका प्रश्नको विस्तृत उत्तर लेख्नुहोस् :\n\n**(क) लक्ष्मीप्रसाद देवकोटाको व्यक्तिगत जीवनमा कस्ता-कस्ता उतारचढाव आए?**\n**उत्तर:** महाकवि लक्ष्मीप्रसाद देवकोटाको साहित्यिक जीवन जति चम्किलो थियो, व्यक्तिगत जीवन त्यति नै सङ्घर्षपूर्ण र उतारचढावले भरिएको थियो। उनले जीवनमा पारिवारिक, स्वास्थ्य र आर्थिक क्षेत्रमा ठुला समस्याहरू भोगे। २५-२६ वर्षको कलिलो उमेरमा नै उनले आफ्ना बुबा, आमा र छोरीलाई गुमाउनु पर्‍यो, जसले उनलाई गहिरो मानसिक चोट दियो। पारिवारिक वियोगको पीडा सहन नसकेर उनले केही समय मानसिक सन्तुलन समेत गुमाए, जसका कारण उनले समाजबाट \'पागल\' को संज्ञा पनि खेप्नुपर्‍यो।\n\nआर्थिक रूपमा उनी सधैँ अभावग्रस्त रहे। लक्ष्मीपूजाका दिन जन्मे पनि जीवनभर उनलाई लक्ष्मी (धन) ले उपेक्षा गरिन्। जीवनको उत्तरार्धमा उनलाई क्यान्सर जस्तो घातक रोगले सतायो। एकातिर क्यान्सरको असह्य पीडा र अर्कोतिर उपचारका लागि आर्थिक सङ्कटले देवकोटालाई शारीरिक र मानसिक रूपमा प्रताड़ित गर्‍यो। यस्ता अनेकौँ पारिवारिक, आर्थिक र स्वास्थ्यसम्बन्धी उतारचढावका बाबजुद पनि उनले साहित्य सिर्जनालाई कहिल्यै रोकेनन्, जुन उनको महानताको प्रतीक हो।\n\n**(ख) देवकोटामा रहेको देशप्रेम र क्रान्ति चेतनाको वर्णन गर्नुहोस्।**\n**उत्तर:** महाकवि देवकोटा एक महान् साहित्यकार मात्र नभई एक सच्चा देशभक्त र क्रान्तिचेत भएका युगपुरुष पनि थिए। उनको देशप्रेम उनका हरेक कार्य र सिर्जनामा झल्किन्छ। नेपालको प्रकृति, संस्कृति र भाषा-साहित्यलाई उनले मुटुदेखि नै माया गरे। बिरामी भएर भारतमा उपचार गराउँदा समेत \"विदेशमा मर्नुभन्दा आफ्नै देशमा बसेर सेवा गर्छु\" भन्ने अठोट लिएर उनी काठमाडौँ फर्किएका थिए, जसले उनको गहिरो राष्ट्रप्रेम दर्शाउँछ।\n\nदेवकोटाको प्रतिभा तत्कालीन निरङ्कुश राणा शासनमा पनि कहिल्यै मुर्झाएन। जब देशमा प्रजातन्त्रका लागि क्रान्तिको आगो सल्किँदै थियो, उनले विद्रोहको बाटो समाते। उनी प्रजातान्त्रिक आन्दोलनमा सक्रिय रूपमा संलग्न भए र बनारसबाट प्रकाशित हुने \'युगवाणी\' पत्रिकामार्फत निरङ्कुशताविरुद्ध विद्रोहको आवाज बुलन्द गरे। उनले शिक्षामन्त्री हुँदा नेपाली भाषालाई पठनपाठनमा अनिवार्य गराउने जस्ता महत्त्वपूर्ण काम गरेर आफ्नो देशप्रेम प्रमाणित गरे। यसरी देवकोटाले आफ्नो कलम र कर्म दुवैबाट राष्ट्रको हित र परिवर्तनका लागि अविस्मरणीय योगदान दिए।\n\n**(ग) देवकोटालाई आशुकविका रूपमा चिनाउनुहोस्।**\n**उत्तर:** \'आशुकवि\' को अर्थ हो, तत्काल वा तुरुन्तै कविता रच्न सक्ने विलक्षण प्रतिभा भएको कवि। लक्ष्मीप्रसाद देवकोटा यो उपमाका लागि सबैभन्दा योग्य व्यक्तित्व हुन्। उनमा छाँगो छङछङाए झैँ वा बिजुलीको वेगमा जस्तै कविता सिर्जना गर्ने अद्भुत क्षमता थियो। उनी सामान्य कुराकानी गर्दागर्दै वा हिँड्दाहिँड्दै पनि धाराप्रवाह कविता लेख्न सक्थे। अझ भनौँ, उनी कवितै-कवितामा कुराकानी गर्न सक्थे।\n\nउनको यो क्षमताका केही विश्वप्रसिद्ध उदाहरणहरू छन्। उनले केवल **तीन महिनामा \'शाकुन्तल\' जस्तो विशाल महाकाव्य**, **१० दिनभित्रका ६० घण्टामा \'सुलोचना\' महाकाव्य** र **एकै रातमा \'कुञ्जिनी\' खण्डकाव्य** लेखेर सिध्याएका थिए। यति छोटो समयमा यति गहन र स्तरीय कृतिहरू रचना गर्नु सामान्य मानिसका लागि असम्भवप्रायः हो। उनको यही तत्काल सिर्जना गर्न सक्ने अद्वितीय र चमत्कारिक प्रतिभाका कारण उनलाई \'आशुकवि\' का रूपमा चिनिन्छ।\n\n**(घ) \'लक्ष्मीप्रसाद देवकोटा\' को जीवनीबाट कस्तो सन्देश पाइन्छ?**\n**उत्तर:** महाकवि लक्ष्मीप्रसाद देवकोटाको जीवनीले हामीलाई अनेकौँ प्रेरणादायी सन्देशहरू प्रदान गर्दछ। यसबाट पाइने सबैभन्दा ठुलो सन्देश हो - **प्रतिकूलतामा पनि निरन्तर साधना र सिर्जनामा लागिरहनुपर्छ।** देवकोटाले आफ्नो जीवनमा पारिवारिक वियोग, चरम आर्थिक अभाव र निरङ्कुश राजनीतिक अवस्था जस्ता ठुला सङ्घर्षहरू भोगे, तर पनि उनले उच्च स्तरका साहित्य रचना गर्न कहिल्यै छोडेनन्।\n\nयस जीवनीले हामीलाई आफ्नो देश, भाषा र संस्कृतिलाई माया गर्न र राष्ट्रको सेवामा सधैँ तल्लीन रहन प्रेरित गर्दछ। आफ्नो क्षमतालाई चिनेर अगाडि बढ्ने मानिसले जस्तोसुकै कठिन परिस्थितिमा पनि सफलता हासिल गर्न सक्छ भन्ने कुरा देवकोटाको जीवनले सिकाउँछ। मानवताको भाव बोकेर समाजका लागि निस्वार्थ योगदान पुऱ्याउन सक्नु नै मानव जीवनको सार्थकता हो भन्ने महान् सन्देश उनको जीवनीबाट पाउन सकिन्छ।\n\n### ७. व्याख्या गर्नुहोस् :\n\n**(क) देवकोटाको महासागर जस्तो प्रतिभा राणाहरूको निरङ्कुशताको साँघुरो सुरुङभित्र कसरी बग्न सक्थ्यो र ?**\n\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:**\nयो वाक्यांश महाकवि लक्ष्मीप्रसाद देवकोटाको जीवनीबाट उद्धृत गरिएको हो। यसले देवकोटाको विशाल, अदम्य र सिर्जनशील साहित्यिक प्रतिभालाई तत्कालीन राणा शासनको दमनकारी र साँघुरो परिवेशले रोक्न नसकेको यथार्थलाई सङ्केत गर्दछ। जतिबेला देवकोटाको कलमको जादु सुरु भयो, त्यतिबेला नेपालमा राणाहरूको निरङ्कुश शासन चलिरहेको थियो।\n\n**विस्तृत व्याख्या:**\nयस वाक्यांशमा देवकोटाको प्रतिभालाई \'महासागर\' र राणा शासनको परिवेशलाई \'साँघुरो सुरुङ\' सँग तुलना गरेर एक शक्तिशाली बिम्ब खडा गरिएको छ। \'महासागर\' विशालता, गहिराइ र असीमित ऊर्जाको प्रतीक हो, जसले देवकोटाको बहुआयामिक र प्रचुर साहित्यिक क्षमतालाई जनाउँछ। उनी कविता, महाकाव्य, खण्डकाव्य, निबन्ध, नाटक, उपन्यास जस्ता अनेक विधामा उत्तिकै सशक्त थिए। उनको सिर्जनाको गति बिजुली वेगमा थियो र त्यसलाई कुनै साँघुरो सीमाले बाँध्न सक्ने थिएन।\n\nअर्कोतर्फ, \'साँघुरो सुरुङ\' तत्कालीन राणा शासनको प्रतीक हो, जुन अभिव्यक्ति स्वतन्त्रता विरोधी, दमनकारी र निरङ्कुश थियो। यस्तो प्रतिकूल समयमा खुलेर साहित्य सिर्जना गर्न पाइँदैनथ्यो। तर, देवकोटाको विद्रोही र क्रान्तिकारी चेतना त्यो सुरुङभित्र कैद भएन। मुलुकमा प्रजातन्त्र प्राप्तिका लागि क्रान्तिको आगो सल्किँदा, उनले पनि विद्रोहको बाटो समाते। उनी वि.सं. २००४ मा प्रजातान्त्रिक आन्दोलनमा संलग्न भए र बनारसबाट प्रकाशित हुने \'युगवाणी\' पत्रिकामार्फत निरङ्कुशता विरुद्ध विद्रोहको वाणी फुके। उनको संलग्नतामा काठमाडौँमा पुस्तकालय खोलेर राणाविरोधी चेतना फैलाउन खोज्दा \'लाइब्रेरी पर्व\' समेत घटाइएको थियो।\n\nजसरी महासागरको उर्लंदो छाललाई एउटा साँघुरो सुरुङले रोक्न सक्दैन, त्यसरी नै देवकोटाको विराट प्रतिभा राणा शासनको सीमाभित्र कैद हुन सकेन। बरु, त्यो सीमा तोडेर विश्वभर फैलियो र उनको जादुमयी स्पर्शले नेपाली साहित्यले विश्व साहित्यकै हाराहारीको प्रौढताको शिखर छुन पुग्यो।\n\n**(ख) हिउँको माझमा जन्मेको हाम्रो साहित्य कहिल्यै पनि एउटै पर्वत शृङ्खलाको भुलभुलैयामा बिलाउने छैन ।**\n\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:**\nयो दूरदर्शी र महत्त्वाकाङ्क्षी भनाइ महाकवि लक्ष्मीप्रसाद देवकोटाले वि.सं. २०१५ मा तत्कालीन सोभियत सङ्घमा भएको \'अफ्र्रो-एसियाली लेखक सम्मेलन\' मा प्रस्तुत गरेका थिए। यो भनाइले नेपाली साहित्यप्रतिको उनको गहिरो विश्वास र यसलाई विश्वव्यापी मञ्चमा पुऱ्याउने उनको उत्कट चाहनालाई प्रस्तुत गर्दछ।\n\n**विस्तृत व्याख्या:**\nयस भनाइमा देवकोटाले नेपाली साहित्यको भविष्यबारे एक शक्तिशाली दृष्टिकोण प्रस्तुत गरेका छन्। \"हिउँको माझमा जन्मेको हाम्रो साहित्य\" भन्नुको अर्थ हो, नेपालको विशिष्ट भौगोलिक र सांस्कृतिक परिवेशमा सिर्जित साहित्य। तर, उनको विचारमा नेपाली साहित्य केवल हिमाल र पर्वत शृङ्खलाको साँघुरो घेरामा मात्र सीमित रहने छैन। \"एउटै पर्वत शृङ्खलाको भुलभुलैयामा बिलाउने छैन\" भन्नुको तात्पर्य हो, नेपाली साहित्य भौगोलिक र मानसिक रूपमा एक्लिएर वा विश्वबाट ओझेल परेर बस्ने छैन। बरु, यसले आफ्नो सिमाना तोडेर एसिया तथा अफ्रिकालाई समेट्ने साहित्यको \'असीम महासागर\' अर्थात् विश्व साहित्यको मूल प्रवाहमा सम्मिलित हुनेछ।\n\nयो उनको आत्मविश्वास र नेपाली साहित्यको मौलिक शक्तिमाथिको अटुट विश्वास हो। उनले नेपाली साहित्यको अन्तर्राष्ट्रियकरणको सपना देखेका थिए, जहाँ हाम्रो साहित्यले विश्वका अन्य साहित्यसँग हातेमालो गरेर अघि बढ्नेछ। उनको यो आँकलन थियो कि जब हाम्रो साहित्य विश्व-साहित्यको महासागरमा मिसिन्छ, तब त्यस महासागरद्वारा सिञ्चित भएर त्यो अझ बढी सुन्दर र सम्पन्न बनेर फेरि हाम्रै पहाडमा बर्सनेछ। यसले नेपाली साहित्यको विश्वव्यापी पहिचान र त्यसबाट प्राप्त हुने नयाँ ऊर्जालाई सङ्केत गर्दछ। यो भनाइ उनको साहित्यिक दूरदर्शिता र नेपाली साहित्यप्रतिको अगाध प्रेमको प्रतीक हो।\n\n### ८. लक्ष्मीप्रसाद देवकोटाको साहित्यिक योगदानको समीक्षा गर्नुहोस् ।\n**उत्तर:**\nमहाकवि लक्ष्मीप्रसाद देवकोटा (वि.सं. १९६६-२०१६) नेपाली साहित्यका एक विराट् प्रतिभाशाली र अतुलनीय योगदान दिने चिरस्मरणीय स्रष्टा हुन्। उनको योगदानलाई सङ्ख्यात्मक र गुणात्मक दुवै दृष्टिले समीक्षा गर्न सकिन्छ।\n\n**सङ्ख्यात्मक योगदान:** देवकोटा नेपाली साहित्यमा सबैभन्दा prolix अर्थात् प्रचुर मात्रामा लेख्ने स्रष्टा मानिन्छन्। उनले आफ्नो ५० वर्षे छोटो जीवनकालमा कविता, खण्डकाव्य, महाकाव्य, निबन्ध, कथा, उपन्यास, नाटक गरी साहित्यका लगभग सबै विधामा कलम चलाए। उनले ७०० जति फुटकर कविता, दर्जनौँ खण्डकाव्य र आधा दर्जन महाकाव्य रचना गरे। केवल तीन महिनामा \'शाकुन्तल\' र एकै रातमा \'कुञ्जिनी\' जस्ता कृति लेख्नुले उनको सिर्जनात्मक क्षमताको प्रचुरतालाई दर्शाउँछ।\n\n**गुणात्मक योगदान:** देवकोटाको योगदान केवल सङ्ख्यामा मात्र सीमित छैन। उनले नेपाली साहित्यमा नयाँ युगको सुरुवात गरे। उनी नेपाली साहित्यमा स्वच्छन्दतावादका प्रवर्तक हुन्। उनका \'मुनामदन\' खण्डकाव्यले त्यसबेलासम्म उपेक्षित रहेको झ्याउरे छन्द अर्थात् लोकभाकालाई साहित्यिक मूलधारमा स्थापित गर्‍यो र यो आजसम्मकै सर्वाधिक लोकप्रिय कृति बनेको छ। उनका \'यात्री\' र \'पागल\' जस्ता कविताले नेपाली कवितामा नयाँ दार्शनिक उचाइ प्रदान गरे। \'लक्ष्मी निबन्ध सङ्ग्रह\' ले नेपाली निबन्ध साहित्यमा नयाँ शैली र गहिराइ थप्यो। उनले आफ्नो कलमको जादुमयी स्पर्शले किशोर अवस्थामा रहेको नेपाली साहित्यलाई विश्व साहित्यकै हाराहारीको प्रौढताको शिखरमा पुऱ्याए।\n\n**अन्य योगदान:** साहित्य सिर्जनाका अतिरिक्त उनी त्रिचन्द्र कलेजका प्राध्यापक, शिक्षामन्त्री तथा नेपाल राजकीय प्रज्ञा प्रतिष्ठानका संस्थापक सदस्य पनि भए। यी हरेक भूमिकामा उनले राष्ट्र र नेपाली भाषा-साहित्यको हितमा काम गरे।\n\n**निष्कर्ष:** देवकोटाको कवित्व प्रतिभा, रचनाको परिमाण र गुणस्तर आज पनि अद्वितीय छ। उनले नेपाली साहित्यलाई जुन उचाइ र समृद्धि प्रदान गरे, त्यसका कारण उनी \'महाकवि\' का रूपमा सम्मानित छन् र नेपाली साहित्यमा उनको स्थान सर्वोच्च छ।\n\n---\n\n## भाषिक संरचना र वर्णविन्यास (Linguistic Structure and Spelling)\n\n### १. दिइएका रेखाङ्कित शब्दको कारक चिनाउनुहोस् :\n**अनुच्छेद:** **हरिले** **सिन्काले** **कान** कोट्यायो। ऊ **घरबाट** **अस्तपालमा** पुग्यो। **डाक्टरले** **उसलाई** **औषधी** दिए। **डाक्टरले** **उसलाई** भने, \"**आजदेखि** सिन्काले कान नकोट्याउनू नि।\"\n\n| **रेखाङ्कित शब्द** | **कारक** |\n| :--- | :--- |\n| हरिले | कर्ता कारक |\n| सिन्काले | करण कारक |\n| कान | कर्म कारक |\n| घरबाट | अपादान कारक |\n| अस्पतालमा | अधिकरण कारक |\n| डाक्टरले | कर्ता कारक |\n| उसलाई | सम्प्रदान कारक |\n| औषधी | कर्म कारक |\n| आजदेखि | अपादान कारक |\n\n### २. दिइएको अनुच्छेदलाई शुद्ध गरी पुनर्लेखन गर्नुहोस् :\n**अशुद्ध:** ग्यवाली षरले कछ्यामा आएर नेपाली भासा र शाहित्य पढाउनुभयो। उहाँको षिकाउने तरिका गजबकै छ। उहाँले पढाएको त क्षाङ्गै बुझिन्क्ष। दिनेस, उमेष र रिसिलाई पनि उहाँले पढाएको षारै मन पर्क्ष रे।\n\n**शुद्ध:** **ज्ञवाली** **सरले** **कक्षामा** आएर नेपाली **भाषा** र **साहित्य** पढाउनुभयो। उहाँको **सिकाउने** तरिका गजबकै छ। उहाँले पढाएको त **छ्याङ्गै** **बुझिन्छ**। **दिनेश**, **उमेश** र **ऋषि**लाई पनि उहाँले पढाएको **साह्रै** मन **पर्छ** रे।\n\n---\n\n## सिर्जना र परियोजना कार्य (Creative and Project Work)\n\n### १. दिइएका बुँदाका आधारमा इन्दिरा प्रसाईको जीवनी तयार पार्नुहोस् :\n* **नाम:** इन्दिरा प्रसाई\n* **जन्म:** वि.सं. २०१४ फागुन ३, दार्जिलिङ\n* **मातापिता:** दुर्गादेवी नेपाल र गणेशप्रसाद शर्मा\n* **शिक्षा:** एम.बी.ए. (त्रिवि)\n* **साहित्यिक विधा:** कथा, कविता, निबन्ध, उपन्यास, आदि\n* **विशेषता:** नारीवादी, सामाजिक र मनोवैज्ञानिक साहित्यकार\n* **सम्मान/पुरस्कार:** युवावर्ष मोती पुरस्कार, मैनाली कथा पुरस्कार, राष्ट्रिय प्रतिभा पुरस्कार आदि।\n\n**जीवनी: साहित्यकार इन्दिरा प्रसाई**\nआफ्नो प्रतिभा र सिर्जनाबाट साहित्यको क्षेत्रमा प्रसिद्ध नाम हो, इन्दिरा प्रसाई। उनको जन्म वि.सं. २०१४ फागुन ३ गते भारतको दार्जिलिङमा पिता गणेशप्रसाद शर्मा र माता दुर्गादेवी नेपालको कोखबाट भएको थियो। जन्मथलो भारत भए पनि उनले कर्मथलो नेपाललाई बनाइन् र हाल काठमाडौँको अनामनगरमा बसोबास गर्दै आएकी छिन्। उनले त्रिभुवन विश्वविद्यालयबाट व्यवस्थापनमा स्नातकोत्तर (एम.बी.ए.) सम्मको उच्च शिक्षा हासिल गरेकी छिन्।\n\nसाहित्यकार प्रसाई बहुमुखी प्रतिभाकी धनी हुन्। उनले कथा, कविता, निबन्ध, उपन्यास, खण्डकाव्य र समीक्षा जस्ता साहित्यका विभिन्न विधामा सफलतापूर्वक कलम चलाएकी छिन्। तथापि, उनी विशेषगरी एक कथाकारका रूपमा परिचित छिन्। उनका सिर्जनाहरूमा नारीवादी चेतना, सामाजिक यथार्थ र मनोवैज्ञानिक विश्लेषण पाइन्छ। जीवन र विज्ञानलाई समन्वय गरेर साहित्य लेख्नु उनको प्रमुख विशेषता हो।\n\nनेपाली साहित्यमा पुऱ्याएको अविस्मरणीय योगदानको कदरस्वरूप उनी **युवावर्ष मोती पुरस्कार**, **मैनाली कथा पुरस्कार**, **राष्ट्रिय प्रतिभा पुरस्कार**, **राष्ट्रिय गौरव युवासम्मान** लगायत थुप्रै पुरस्कार र सम्मानबाट विभूषित भएकी छिन्। भूगोलको सीमाभन्दा माथि उठेर नेपाली साहित्यको विकासमा निरन्तर लागिरहेकी प्रसाई हामी सबैका लागि प्रेरणाको स्रोत हुन्।', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-16 03:05:11'),
(74, 11204, '# यस्तो कहिल्यै नहोस् - कक्षा १० (पूर्ण र विस्तृत गाइड)\r\n\r\n[cite_start]\"यस्तो कहिल्यै नहोस्\" एक मार्मिक र विचारोत्तेजक मनोवाद हो जसले आधुनिक युगको साइबर अपराध र सामाजिक सञ्जालको दुरुपयोगका चुनौती र परिणामहरूलाई गहिरो रूपमा केलाउँछ [cite: 1361, 1362]। [cite_start]यस पाठमा, मुख्य पात्र शुकमानले डिजिटल संसारको जालमा फस्दा आफूले गरेका गल्तीहरू र त्यसबाट उत्पन्न पश्चात्तापलाई आफैँसँग संवाद गर्दै व्यक्त गर्छन् [cite: 1362]। [cite_start]यो विस्तृत गाइडले पाठका मुख्य सन्देश, पाठ, र सबै अभ्यासहरूको गहन र पूर्ण उत्तरहरू समावेश गर्दछ, जसले विद्यार्थीहरूलाई यसको मूल विषयवस्तु बुझ्न र परीक्षाको लागि प्रभावकारी रूपमा तयारी गर्न मद्दत गर्नेछ [cite: 1363]।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## शब्दभण्डार (Vocabulary)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका शब्दको अर्थ लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n| **शब्द** | **अर्थ** |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| सङ्कट | [cite_start]आपत्विपत् [cite: 1374] |\r\n| विलाप | [cite_start]बिलौना [cite: 1375] |\r\n| लोहोरो | [cite_start]सिलौटामा मसला आदि पिँध्न प्रयोग गरिने फलाम वा ढुङ्गाको लाम्चो वा गोलो उपकरण [cite: 1377] |\r\n| शङ्का | [cite_start]सन्देह [cite: 1378] |\r\n| अपरिचित | [cite_start]चिनजान नभएको [cite: 1379] |\r\n| सातो | [cite_start]होस [cite: 1380] |\r\n\r\n### २. दिइएको अनुच्छेदबाट तीन-तीनओटा लघुतावाची र समूहवाची शब्द पहिचान गर्नुहोस् :\r\n[cite_start]**अनुच्छेद:** कमिलाको ताँती मौरीको घारमा पसेको देखेर कागको बथान कराउँदै आयो [cite: 1382]। [cite_start]काग कराउँदा कागका मुखमा रहेको भातको सितो खस्यो [cite: 1382]। [cite_start]बाँदर केराको कोसो मुखमा च्यापेर रुखमा चढ्यो [cite: 1383]। [cite_start]बाँदर चढेको देखेर कागको बथान उड्यो [cite: 1383]। [cite_start]बाँदर त्यहाँबाट कुदेर बाँसघारीतिर गयो [cite: 1384]। [cite_start]रुखबाट उडेको तिर्खाएको कागले पानीको थोपो पनि खान पाएन कमिलाले भने चिनीका दानाभन्दा महका थोपा मिठो मानी खाए [cite: 1384]।\r\n\r\n**उत्तर :**\r\n* [cite_start]**लघुतावाची शब्द:** सितो, कोसो, थोपो, दाना [cite: 1386]।\r\n* [cite_start]**समूहवाची शब्द:** ताँती, घार, बथान, घारी [cite: 1386]।\r\n\r\n### ३. पाँच-पाँचओटा लघुतावाची र समूहवाची शब्द पर्ने गरी अनुच्छेद लेख्नुहोस्ः\r\n**वनभोज**\r\n[cite_start]बिहानै एक टुक्रा स्याउ खाएर म वनभोज गएँ [cite: 1389]। [cite_start]बाटोमा गाडीहरू ताँती लगाएर हिँडेका थिए [cite: 1389]। [cite_start]वनभोज स्थलमा मान्छेहरूको भिड थियो [cite: 1389]। [cite_start]एक हुल मान्छेहरू नाचिरहेका थिए [cite: 1390]। [cite_start]त्यहाँ बाँदरको बथान पनि थियो [cite: 1390]। [cite_start]मैले बाँदरलाई एक कोसो केरा दिएँ [cite: 1390]। [cite_start]साथीले कुकुरलाई एक चोक्टो मासु दियो [cite: 1391]। [cite_start]त्यहाँ एउटा रुखमा अरिङ्गालको गोलो पनि देख्यौँ [cite: 1392]। [cite_start]मैले त्यहाँ एक त्यान्द्रो साग र एक पित्को अचार पनि खाएँ [cite: 1392]।\r\n\r\n### ४. दिइएका पद, पदावलीलाई अर्थ खुल्ने गरी वाक्यमा प्रयोग गर्नुहोस् :\r\n* **हरे !:** हरे ! [cite_start]पहिरोले गाउँ नै बगायो [cite: 1394]।\r\n* [cite_start]**सञ्जाल:** नेपालमा धेरै मानिसले सामाजिक सञ्जाल चलाउँछन् [cite: 1395]।\r\n* [cite_start]**विवरण:** मैले मेरो दसैंको खर्च विवरण बाबालाई सुनाएँ [cite: 1396]।\r\n* [cite_start]**सुइँकुच्चा ठोक्नु:** चोरले सामान चोरेर राति नै सुइँकुच्चा ठोकेछ [cite: 1397]।\r\n* [cite_start]**हुने हार दैव नटार:** हुने हार दैव नटार भनेझै सबैले एक दिन यो संसार छोडेर जानैपर्छ [cite: 1398]।\r\n* [cite_start]**लोभले लाभ लाभले विलाप:** चिट्ठा भरेर धेरै कमाउँछु भन्दा साथमा भएको पैसा पनि चैट भयो [cite: 1400]। [cite_start]लोभले लाभ लाभले विलाप भनेको यही हो [cite: 1401]।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## बोध र अभिव्यक्ति (Comprehension and Expression)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका शब्दको शुद्ध उच्चारण गर्नुहोस् :\r\n[cite_start]झल्यास्स, गज्जब, शत्रु, खुरुखुरु, बुद्धि, अत्तोपत्तो, पन्जा, दूरसञ्चार, आश्वस्त [cite: 1407]।\r\n\r\n### २. [cite_start]\'यस्तो कहिल्यै नहोस्\' मनोवाद हाउभाउसहित सस्वरवाचन गर्नुहोस् [cite: 1408]।\r\n\r\n### ३. दिइएका प्रश्नको उत्तर भन्नुहोस् :\r\n* **(क) \'यस्तो कहिल्यै नहोस्\' मनोवाद कुन पात्रको घटनासँग सम्बन्धित छ ?**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** \'यस्तो कहिल्यै नहोस्\' मनोवाद शुकमान पात्रको घटनासँग सम्बन्धित छ [cite: 1411]।\r\n* **(ख) मनोवादमा \'नगद पुरस्कारसहित बधाई दिएको सन्देश\' भन्दा अगाडि र पछाडि कुन-कुन प्रसङ्ग आएका छन् ?**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** मनोवादमा \'नगद पुरस्कारसहित बधाई दिएको सन्देश\' भन्दा अगाडि र पछाडि सामाजिक सञ्जाल र साइबर अपराधका प्रसङ्ग आएका छन् [cite: 1413]।\r\n* **(ग) पत्रिका मनमनै पढेको वर्णन मनोवादको कुन अनुच्छेदमा छ ?**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** पत्रिका मनमनै पढेको वर्णन मनोवादको पाँचौं अनुच्छेदमा छ [cite: 1415]।\r\n* **(घ) मनोवादमा कुन पुरुषीय कथनशैली उपयोग गरिएको छ ?**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** मनोवादमा प्रथम पुरुषीय कथनशैली उपयोग गरिएको छ [cite: 1416]।\r\n\r\n### ४. दिइएको मनोवादको अंश पढी सोधिएका प्रश्नको उत्तर दिनुहोस् :\r\n**मनोवादको अंश:** लौ हेर त, १२ पो बजिसकेछ ! (घडी हेर्दै) [cite_start]अब त निदाउनुपर्यो [cite: 1418]। [cite_start]\'हुने हार दैव नटार\' भन्छन् [cite: 1418]। [cite_start]पाँच लाख डुब्यो भनेर अब मैले त्यसैमा चिन्ता लिएर मेरो ज्यान सुकाउनुभन्दा आत्मविश्वासका ऊर्जाले ज्यान बचाउनतिर लाग्नुपर्छ [cite: 1419]। दुई वर्ष अरबको खाडीमा बसेर कमाएको धन गोलखाडीमा गयो त के गर्ने ? [cite_start]आफ्नै बुद्धिले गयो [cite: 1420]। [cite_start]मरुभूमिमा पसिना बगाएर कमाएको त्यो मेरो धन झुक्याएर लाने त्यस्ता दुष्टलाई भगवान्ले पनि सजाय त देलान नि ! [cite: 1421] हे भगवान् ! (अलि ढुक्क हुँदै निदाउनका लागि आँखा चिम्म गर्छन्) [cite_start]खै भगवान्ले पनि के गर्नु र आफ्नै बुद्धि बिग्रेपछि [cite: 1422]। [cite_start]... अँ, अस्ति एउटा समाचार पढेको थिएँ [cite: 1423]। [cite_start]साइबर अपराधका बारेमा लेखेको थियो [cite: 1424]। [cite_start]\'कोही जानी नजानी यस्तो संसारमा पसेका छन्, फसेका छन्, त्यसबाट उम्किने उपाय खोज्छन् र त्यस्तामा अरू पनि कोही नफसोस् भन्ने चाहन्छन् भने नेपाल प्रहरीको साइबर अपराध शाखामा तुरुन्त सम्पर्क गर्नू\' भनी त्यसमा पनि लेखेको थियो [cite: 1424]। (अलि आश्वस्त हुँदै) [cite_start]म त फसें फसें, मेरो पैसा त डुब्यो डुब्यो ! [cite: 1425] [cite_start]अब अरू कोही पनि नफसुन् र नडुबुन् भन्नका लागि अब साइबर अपराध शाखामा जान्छु [cite: 1426]।\r\n\r\n* **(क) मनोवादको अंशमा पात्र निदाउन नसक्नुको कारण के हो ?**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** दुई वर्ष अरबको खाडीमा बसेर कमाएको पाँच लाख डुबेको चिन्ताले पात्र निदाउन नसकेका होलान् [cite: 1428]।\r\n* **(ख) पात्रले कहाँ गएर धन कमाएको थियो ?**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** पात्रले अरबको खाडीमा गएर धन कमाएको थियो [cite: 1431]।\r\n* **(ग) पात्रले समाचारमा के कुरा पढेको थियो ?**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** पात्रले समाचारमा साइबर अपराधका बारेमा पढेको थियो [cite: 1433]।\r\n* **(घ) पात्रले समाचारमा पढेको कुरा व्यवहारमा उतार्न नसक्दा कस्ता समस्या भोग्नुपर्यो, लेख्नुहोस् ।**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** पात्रले समाचारमा पढेका कुरा व्यवहारमा उतार्न नसक्दा आफूसँग भएको पैसा गुमाउनुपर्यो [cite: 1442]।\r\n\r\n### ५. \'यस्तो कहिल्यै नहोस्\' मनोवादका पात्रले मनमा खेलाएका मुख्य मुख्य घटना टिपोट गर्नुहोस् ।\r\n**उत्तर :** \'यस्तो कहिल्यै नहोस्\' मनोवादका पात्रले मनमा खेलाएका मुख्य मुख्य घटनाहरुः\r\n* [cite_start]सामाजिक सञ्जालले गर्दा जीवन जटिल बन्नु र समस्यामा फस्नु[cite: 1445],\r\n* [cite_start]मोबाइलभित्रको साइबर संसारमा पस्दा विचार नपुऱ्याएकामा चिन्ता लाग्नु[cite: 1446],\r\n* [cite_start]सामाजिक सञ्जाल प्रयोग र साइबर सचेतनासम्बन्धी कक्षामा सहभागी भएर पनि व्यवहारमा लागू गर्न नसक्दा पछुतो मान्नु[cite: 1447],\r\n* [cite_start]सामाजिक सञ्जालको दुरुपयोगले निम्त्याएका समस्या सम्झनु[cite: 1448],\r\n* [cite_start]मोबाइलका राम्रा र नराम्रा पक्ष सम्झनु[cite: 1449],\r\n* [cite_start]२५ लाख पाउने लोभमा फसेकोमा पछुतो हुनु[cite: 1450],\r\n* [cite_start]काकाकी छोरी पानमती झुटो जालमा परेको सम्झनु[cite: 1451],\r\n* [cite_start]दुई वर्ष अरबको खाडीमा बसेर कमाएको धन गोलखाडीमा जाँदा राति निदाउन नसक्नु[cite: 1452],\r\n* [cite_start]साइबर अपराधको सिकारबाट जोगिने उपाय सम्झनु[cite: 1453],\r\n* [cite_start]कसैलाई साइबर अपराधको सिकार बन्नु नपरोस् भन्ने इच्छा मनमा आउनु [cite: 1454]।\r\n\r\n### ६. \'यस्तो कहिल्यै नहोस्\' मनोवादबाट कस्तो सन्देश पाइन्छ, लेख्नुहोस् ।\r\n[cite_start]**उत्तर :** \'यस्तो कहिल्यै नहोस्\' मनोवादले सामाजिक सञ्जालको प्रयोगमा सचेत बनाउन र साइबर अपराधबारे सिकाउन खोजेको छ [cite: 1458]। [cite_start]यसले मोबाइल र इन्टरनेट जस्ता प्रविधिको सही प्रयोगले जीवन सहज हुने तर दुरुपयोगले ठुला समस्यामा पार्न सक्ने कुरालाई जोड दिएको छ [cite: 1459]। यसबाट पाइने मुख्य सन्देशहरू हुन्:\r\n* [cite_start]आफ्नो कम्प्युटर, ल्यापटप र मोबाइलमा चलाइने सामाजिक सञ्जालका पासवर्ड कसैलाई दिनुहुँदैन [cite: 1460]।\r\n* [cite_start]समय-समयमा पासवर्ड परिवर्तन गरिरहनुपर्छ [cite: 1461]।\r\n* [cite_start]अपरिचित व्यक्ति वा संस्थाबाट आएका इमेल खोल्नुहुँदैन [cite: 1461]।\r\n* [cite_start]इमेलमा काम गरिसकेपछि साइन आउट वा लग आउट गर्नुपर्छ [cite: 1462]।\r\n* [cite_start]इमेल तथा सामाजिक सञ्जालमा आउन सक्ने आकर्षक उपहार वा चिट्ठाको भ्रममा पर्नुहुँदैन [cite: 1463]।\r\n* [cite_start]यस्ता इमेल तथा म्यासेजमाथि शङ्का लागेमा नजिकको प्रहरी कार्यालयमा सम्पर्क गर्नुपर्छ [cite: 1464]।\r\n\r\n### ७. मनोवादमा उल्लेख भएको साइबर अपराधको प्रसङ्ग पढेपछि तपाईंले कस्तो महसुस गर्नुभयो, उल्लेख गर्नुहोस् ।\r\n[cite_start]**उत्तर :** \'यस्तो कहिल्यै नहोस्\' मनोवादमा उल्लेख भएको साइबर अपराधको प्रसङ्ग पढेपछि मलाई सामाजिक सञ्जालको प्रयोगमा सचेत बन्नुपर्ने चेतना अझ बढ्यो [cite: 1466]। [cite_start]पात्र शुकमान र यस्तै ठगीका घटनाहरु मेरो स्मरणमा आए [cite: 1467]। [cite_start]शुकमानले जस्तै यस विषयमा ज्ञान भएर पनि बेवास्ता गर्ने बानी थियो तर यस पाठले सम्भावित घटनाप्रति अझ सचेत बनायो [cite: 1469]। [cite_start]सामाजिक सञ्जालका माध्यमबाट हुन सक्ने साइबर अपराधबाट बच्ने थप उपायहरुको ज्ञान पनि भयो [cite: 1470]।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## सिर्जना र परियोजना कार्य (Creative and Project Work)\r\n\r\n### १. एसईई परीक्षाको नतिजा प्रकाशन हुनुभन्दा अघिल्लो दिनको मनोदशा समेटेर छोटो मनोवाद लेख्नुहोस्।\r\n[cite_start]**पात्र:** सुमित [cite: 1475]\r\n[cite_start]**स्थान:** सुत्ने कोठा [cite: 1476]\r\n[cite_start]**समय:** राति १०:०० बजे [cite: 1477]\r\n\r\n[cite_start](भोलि एसईई परीक्षाको नतिजा प्रकाशन हुँदै छ [cite: 1479]। [cite_start]ऊ आफ्‌नो बिछ्यौनामा पल्टिइरहेको छ [cite: 1479]। [cite_start]सुमित परीक्षाको नतिजा आउने खबरले बेचैन छ [cite: 1479]। [cite_start]नतिजा र अब के पढ्ने भन्ने भविष्यको चिन्ताले छटपटाएको पनि छ [cite: 1479]। [cite_start]उसको मनमा विभिन्न कुराहरु खेलिरहेका छन् [cite: 1479]।)\r\n\r\nला ! [cite_start]नतिजा आउने दिन पनि आइहाल्यो [cite: 1480]। [cite_start]नतिजा राम्रो आए त केही चिन्ता थिएन, नतिजा राम्रो आएन भने त ढुक्कै हो, मेरो बाबाले मलाई खाडी पठाउनुहुन्छ [cite: 1480]। [cite_start]परीक्षाको तयारीका लागि भनेर ट्युसन, कोचिङ सबै पढियो [cite: 1481]। [cite_start]बिहान ५ बजेदेखि बेलुका १० बजेसम्म [cite: 1481]। [cite_start]हैट, यति पढेर परीक्षा दिँदा पनि पास नभए त कहिल्यै नपढे पनि भो [cite: 1482]। [cite_start](पानी पिउँछ [cite: 1482]।) ह्या! [cite_start]कति चिन्ता लिएको मैले पनि यतिको लेख्दा ए+ नआए पनि बि सम्म त कसो नआउला र ! [cite: 1483] [cite_start]बाबाले छोरोले ए+ ल्याउँछ भन्ने आशा गर्नुभएको छ होला, ए+ आएन भने बाबा त पक्कै दुःखी हुनुहुने छ [cite: 1484]। [cite_start]छोराछोरीको राम्रो नतिजाका लागि आशा गर्नु नराम्रो पनि त होइन [cite: 1485]। [cite_start](पर्दा खोलेर बाहिर हेर्छ [cite: 1486][cite_start]।) भोलि यतिबेला त नतिजा आइसक्छ [cite: 1486]। [cite_start]अबको बाटो के हुने भन्ने पनि यही ग्रेडले निर्धारण गर्ने होला [cite: 1487]। [cite_start]ए+ आए विज्ञान विषय नै पढ्नुपर्ने होला नत्र व्यवस्थापन पढ्ने त होला [cite: 1488]। [cite_start]हुनत यो नतिजा मात्र पनि त सबथोक होइन भो [cite: 1489]। [cite_start]फलामे ढोका भन्दै धेरै हाउगुजी ठानेर पनि यस्तो भएको हो [cite: 1489]। [cite_start](मनलाई सम्हाल्न खोज्छ [cite: 1490][cite_start]।) एसईईमा राम्रो ग्रेड आएर पछि गुल्टिन र सोचेजस्तो नआएर पछि राम्रो हुन पनि त सक्छ नि [cite: 1490]। [cite_start]एउटा कक्षाको परीक्षा त हो, यसलाई यत्रो हाउगुजी किन ठानेको हुँला ! [cite: 1490] [cite_start]सोचे जस्तो नआए मिहिनेत कम भएछ, अर्को कक्षामा अझ मिहिनेत गर्नुपर्छ भनेर बुझुँला [cite: 1490]। [cite_start]जिन्दगीले झन् कस्ता कठिन परीक्षा लिने हो [cite: 1490]। [cite_start]निराश भएर हरेस खानु नपरोस् अरु त्यस्तै हो [cite: 1490]। [cite_start](घडी हेर्छ [cite: 1490][cite_start]) ए ढिला भइसकेछ, सुत्नुपर्यो [cite: 1490]। [cite_start](बत्ती निभाएर सुत्छ [cite: 1490]।)\r\n\r\n### २. पुरस्कृत हुँदाको क्षण समेटेर छोटो मनोवाद लेख्नुहोस्।\r\n[cite_start]**पात्र:** सुशान्त [cite: 1492] (Source uses \'सुमित\' for the previous, \'सुशान्त\' for this monologue)\r\n[cite_start]**स्थान:** सुत्ने कोठा [cite: 1492]\r\n[cite_start]**समय:** राति १०:०० बजे [cite: 1493]\r\n\r\n[cite_start](सुशान्त आज खुसी छ [cite: 1494]। [cite_start]उसको अनुहारमा बेग्लै चमक देखिन्छ [cite: 1494]। [cite_start]कोठाको भित्तामा झुन्डिएको प्रमाणपत्र हेरेर आनन्दले रमाउँदै छ किनकि जिल्लास्तरीय वादविवाद प्रतियोगितामा प्रथम भएको छ र उसको मनमा विभिन्न कुराहरु खेलिरहेका छन् [cite: 1494]।)\r\n\r\n(मनमनै) धन्य भगवान् ! (हात जोडी प्रतियोगिताका क्षण सम्झदै) [cite_start]मिहिनेत गरे त्यसको फल एक दिन अवश्य पाइने नै रहेछ [cite: 1496]। [cite_start]सानो भए (पनि मेरो एउटा सपना पूरा भएको छ [cite: 1497]। [cite_start]यत्रो एकसे एक जान्ने विद्यार्थीहरु हुँदाहुँदै जिल्लास्तरीय प्रतियोगितामा प्रथम हुनु चानचुने कुरा पनि त होइन नि [cite: 1497]। [cite_start]उद्घोषकले तेस्रो र दोस्रो हुनेको नाम भनिसक्दा म प्रथम हुने आशा मरिसकेको थियो [cite: 1497]। प्रथम हुनेमा मेरो नाम भन्दा म त झण्डै उफ्रिएको ! (खुसी हुँदै) [cite_start]त्यो तालीको गडगडाहट र त्यतिबेला मेरो नेपाली विषय शिक्षकको मुहार पनि हेर्न लायक थियो [cite: 1497]। [cite_start]त्यहाँ उपस्थित ठूला ठूला मान्छेहरुले बधाई दिँदा त मलाई कस्तो लाज लागेको थियो [cite: 1497]। [cite_start]आमालाई यो कुरा सुनाउँदा आमाले हर्षका आँसु झार्नु भो [cite: 1504]। [cite_start]मलाई बल्ल थाहा भयो छोराछोरीको खुसीमा आमाबाबा कति खुसी बन्दा रहेछन् भनेर [cite: 1504]। [cite_start]एकपल्ट त त्यति धेरै मान्छेको सामुन्ने गएर कसरी बोल्ने होला भन्ने चिन्ता पनि बढ्यो [cite: 1506]। [cite_start]डरले मुटु ढुक्क पनि भयो [cite: 1506]। [cite_start]...मैले मिहिनेत कम गरेको पनि त होइन नि [cite: 1510]। [cite_start]गुगलमा खोजेर र युटुबमा हेरेर तयारी गरेको फाइदै भयो [cite: 1510]। (मुस्कुराउँदै) [cite_start]अब त सबैको सामुन्ने छाती फुलाएर हिँड्न पाइन्छ [cite: 1512]। (कोल्टे फेर्दै) [cite_start]यसमा मेरा गुरु, आमाबाबा र साथीहरुको पनि ठूलो योगदान छ [cite: 1513]। [cite_start]मैले अझ मेरो प्रतिभालाई तिखार्नुपर्छ [cite: 1513]। (सुत्न खोज्दै) [cite_start]अब भोलि स्कुल जाँदा मिठाई लगेर गुरु र साथीहरुलाई दिनुपर्छ [cite: 1515]।\r\n\r\n### ३. दिइएको विज्ञापनको नमुना पढी आफ्नो विद्यालयको बालसाहित्य पत्रिकाका लागि विज्ञापन तयार गर्नुहोस्ः\r\n**बाल पत्रिका \'आँकुरा\' प्रकाशनसम्बन्धी सूचना**\r\n[cite_start]विद्यार्थीहरुमा लुकेर रहेको प्रतिभालाई उजागर गर्ने उद्देश्यले हाम्रो यस रत्न राज्य माध्यमिक विद्यालयमा बालपत्रिका \'आँकुरा\' प्रकाशन हुन लागेको सहर्ष जानकारी गराउँछौँ [cite: 1542]। [cite_start]बालसाहित्यको क्षेत्रमा प्रकाशन हुन गइरहेको यस पत्रिकामा आगामी अङ्कका लागि आफ्‌ना रचनाहरु पठाउनका लागि लेखन, कला र साहित्यप्रति रुचि राख्ने कक्षा १२ सम्म अध्ययन गर्ने सम्पूर्ण विद्यार्थीहरुलाई आह्वान गरिन्छ [cite: 1543]।\r\n[cite_start]**पुनश्चः** उत्कृष्ट रचनाहरुलाई पुरस्कारको व्यवस्था पनि गरिएको छ [cite: 1544]।\r\n[cite_start]**रचना पठाउने ठेगानाः** रत्न राज्य माध्यमिक विद्यालय, विकासनगर-४, कैलाली [cite: 1544]\r\n[cite_start]**मितिः** २०८० जेठ १० गतेसम्म [cite: 1544]\r\n\r\n### ४. अनुच्छेद पढी सोधिएका प्रश्नको उत्तर दिनुहोस् :\r\n* **(अ) प्रविधिको प्रयोगले सिकाइमा कस्तो सुविधा पुऱ्याएको छ ?**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** प्रविधिको प्रयोगले सिकाइ प्रणालीलाई सरल, प्रायोगिक, मनोरञ्जक र चिरस्थायी बनाउन सहयोग पुऱ्याएको छ [cite: 1545, 1558]।\r\n* **(आ) तपाईंले सिकाइका लागि कुन कुन एप्स प्रयोग गर्नुभएको छ, नाम लेख्नुहोस् ।**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** मैले सिकाइका लागि गुगल, युटुब जस्ता एप्स प्रयोग गरेको छु [cite: 1560]।\r\n* **(इ) विद्यार्थीमा प्रविधिप्रति मोह बढ्नुको कारण के हो ?**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** सिकाइ रुचिपूर्ण र चाखलाग्दो हुनुका साथै विद्यार्थीले इमेल, इन्टरनेट आदिको प्रयोगबाट नयाँ नयाँ विषयवस्तु खोजेर आफै सिक्न सक्ने भएकाले विद्यार्थीमा प्रविधिप्रति मोह बढेको हो [cite: 1562]।\r\n* **(ई) विद्यार्थीलाई परियोजना कार्य गर्न प्रविधिले कसरी सहयोग गर्छ ?**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** प्रविधि प्रयोगबाट विद्यार्थीले इन्टरनेट तथा अन्य क्षेत्रबाट नयाँ नयाँ विषयवस्तु खोजेर अनुसन्धान र खोजका साथ परियोजना कार्य गर्न सक्छन् [cite: 1548, 1564]।\r\n\r\n### ५. भाषिक संरचना र वर्णविन्यास पहिचान गर्नुहोस्ः\r\n* **(अ) अनुच्छेदबाट दुईओटा समस्त शब्द खोजी तिनको विग्रह गर्नुहोस् ।**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** कक्षाकोठा (कक्षाका लागि कोठा), चौघेरा (चार घेराको समूह) [cite: 1572]।\r\n* **(आ) \'ठुलो\' र \'पढाइ\' शब्दलाई द्वित्व प्रक्रियाबाट नयाँ शब्द बनाउनुहोस् ।**\r\n    [cite_start]**उत्तर :** ठुल्ठुलो, पढाइसढाइ [cite: 1573]।\r\n* **(इ) अनुच्छेदबाट सुरु र बिचमा दीर्घ ऊकार प्रयोग भएका एक-एक ओटा शब्द टिप्नुहोस् ।**\r\n    **उत्तर :** सुरुमा: (पाठ्यक्रममा \'पूर्ण\' शब्द छैन, तर उदाहरणका लागि) पूर्ण; [cite_start]बिचमा: खोजमूलक [cite: 1575, 1576]।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## भाषिक संरचना र वर्णविन्यास (Linguistic Structure and Spelling)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएको अनुच्छेदबाट तीनओटा समस्त शब्द र तीनओटा विग्रह पदावली पहिचान गरी लेख्नुहोस्ः\r\n**उत्तर :**\r\n* [cite_start]**समस्त शब्द:** दिनरात (दिन र रात), रुनु न हाँस्नु (न रुनु न हाँस्नु), जेठोबाठो (जेठो पनि बाठो पनि) [cite: 1583]।\r\n* [cite_start]**विग्रह पदावली:** आपत् र विपत् (आपत्विपत्), गृहकी लक्ष्मी (गृहलक्ष्मी), इन्तु न चिन्तु (इन्तुचिन्तु) [cite: 1581, 1583]।\r\n\r\n### २. \'यस्तो कहिल्यै नहोस्\' मनोवादबाट पाँचओटा समस्त शब्द पहिचान गरी तिनको विग्रह गर्नुहोस् ।\r\n[cite_start]**उत्तर :** समस्याग्रस्त (समस्याले ग्रस्त), साइबर अपराध (साइबरसम्बन्धी अपराध), लोककथा (लोकको कथा), दिदीबहिनी (दिदी र बहिनी), देशविदेश (देश र विदेश) [cite: 1585]।\r\n\r\n### ३. दिइएका समस्त शब्दको विग्रह गर्नुहोस् :\r\n* [cite_start]**प्रतिदिन:** प्रत्येक दिन [cite: 1587]\r\n* [cite_start]**भरपेट:** पेट भर [cite: 1588]\r\n* [cite_start]**पकेटमार:** पकेट मार्ने [cite: 1589]\r\n* [cite_start]**कलाप्रवीण:** कलामा प्रवीण छ जो [cite: 1590]\r\n* [cite_start]**चरणकमल:** चरणरुपी कमल [cite: 1590]\r\n* [cite_start]**जेठोबाठो:** जेठो पनि बाठो पनि [cite: 1590]\r\n* [cite_start]**नवरत्न:** नौ रत्नको समूह [cite: 1591]\r\n* [cite_start]**राधाकृष्ण:** राधा र कृष्ण [cite: 1598]\r\n* [cite_start]**लाम्खुट्टे:** लामा खुट्टा भएको [cite: 1598]\r\n* [cite_start]**सप्तर्षि:** सात ऋषिको समूह [cite: 1598]\r\n\r\n### ४. दिइएको अनुच्छेदबाट शब्दको सुरु, बिच र अन्तिममा दीर्घ ऊकार प्रयोग भएका शब्द पहिचान गर्नुहोस् :\r\n**उत्तरः**\r\n* [cite_start]**सुरुमा दीर्घ ऊकार:** पूर्णबहादुर, ऊष्ण [cite: 1615]\r\n* [cite_start]**बिचमा दीर्घ ऊकार:** मयूर, फलफूल, विभूषण, विद्याभूषण [cite: 1616]\r\n* [cite_start]**अन्तिममा दीर्घ ऊकार:** बधू [cite: 1617]\r\n\r\n### ५. दुई जना साथीबिच पढाइका बारेमा भएको संवाद लेख्नुहोस् ।\r\n[cite_start]**(अस्मिता र श्रेया कालिका स्कुलको कक्षा १० मा पढ्ने छात्राहरु हुन् [cite: 1632]। [cite_start]विद्यालयको खाजा खाने समयमा दुई जना चौरको छेउमा बसेर खाजा खाँदै आफ्‌नो पढाइका बारेमा कुराकानी गर्दै छन् [cite: 1632]।)\r\n[cite_start]**अस्मिताः** सुन न श्रेया, मलाई त अचेल पढाइतिर ध्यानै जान छाड्यो [cite: 1633]।\r\n**श्रेयाः** होइन के भो र फेरि ? [cite_start]कसैको मायामा पर्यो कि क्या हो ? [cite: 1634]\r\n[cite_start]**अस्मिताः** ह्या, यिनलाई फेरि जतिबेला पनि मजाक मात्र गर्नुपर्ने [cite: 1635]। [cite_start]जति पढे पनि दिमागमा घुस्दै घुस्दैन क्या ! [cite: 1635]\r\n[cite_start]**श्रेयाः** पढाइ सजिलो त कहाँ छ र ? [cite: 1636] [cite_start]अध्ययनका क्रममा कहिलेकाहीँ यस्तो विचार आउनु सामान्य हो [cite: 1636]। [cite_start]केही विषयवस्तु बुझ्नलाई अलिकति कठिन हुँदैमा निराश हुनु त भएन नि [cite: 1637]।\r\n[cite_start]**अस्मिताः** यस्तो दुःख गरेर पढ्यो अनि पछि जागिर पनि पाइँदैन [cite: 1638]। [cite_start]बिहे गरेर लोग्नेको घरमा गृहिणी भएर बस्नुपर्ने होला [cite: 1638]।\r\n[cite_start]**श्रेयाः** फेरि यस्तै कुरा, तिमी जस्तो मान्छेले पनि यस्तो कुरा गर्न सुहाउँछ ? [cite: 1639] [cite_start]राम्रोसँग पढेर आत्मनिर्भर बन्नुपर्छ [cite: 1639]। [cite_start]महिलाहरु पढेर कहाँ कहाँ पुगिसके, यिनको दिमाग भने अझै पन्ध्रौं शताब्दीमै छ [cite: 1640]। [cite_start]फेरि पढ्ने जागिर खान मात्र पनि त होइन [cite: 1641]।\r\n[cite_start]**अस्मिताः** उसो भए भन न त पढेर के गर्ने ? [cite: 1642]\r\n[cite_start]**श्रेयाः** पढेपछि जीवन सहज हुन्छ [cite: 1643]। [cite_start]दैनिक समस्याहरु पनि सही किसिमले समाधान गर्न सकिन्छ [cite: 1644]। [cite_start]सही समयमा सही निर्णय लिने क्षमता विकास हुन्छ [cite: 1644]। [cite_start]सबैभन्दा ठुलो कुरा त पढाइले हामीलाई आत्मनिर्भर बनाउँछ [cite: 1645]।\r\n[cite_start]**अस्मिताः** त्यो त हो [cite: 1646]। [cite_start]अब राम्रोसँग पढ्‌नुपर्छ [cite: 1646]। [cite_start]तिमी पनि सिकाऊ है [cite: 1646]।\r\n[cite_start]**श्रेयाः** भइहाल्छ नि [cite: 1647]। [cite_start](घण्टी बज्छ [cite: 1647]। [cite_start]दुवै कक्षाकोठातिर जान्छन् [cite: 1647]।)', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-16 03:05:11');
INSERT INTO `course_notes_content` (`id`, `topic_id`, `content`, `markdown_format`, `created_at`, `updated_at`) VALUES
(75, 11209, '# मेरो देशको शिक्षा - कक्षा १० (पूर्ण विस्तृत गाइड)\r\n\r\n\"मेरो देशको शिक्षा\" निबन्धले हाम्रो देशको शिक्षा प्रणालीको वर्तमान अवस्था, चुनौती र भविष्यको सम्भावनालाई केलाउँछ। यसले शिक्षाले राष्ट्रको भविष्यलाई कसरी आकार दिन्छ भन्ने कुरामा प्रकाश पार्दै पाठ्यक्रम, शिक्षण विधि र शैक्षिक नीतिहरूका विभिन्न पक्षहरूको अन्वेषण गर्दछ। यो विस्तृत गाइडले परीक्षाको तयारीका लागि सबै प्रश्नहरूको गहन र पूर्ण उत्तरहरू समावेश गर्दछ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## शब्दभण्डार (Vocabulary)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका अर्थ बुझाउने शब्द र जोडा मिलाउनुहोस् :\r\n\r\n| **शब्द** | **अर्थ** |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| आविष्कार | नयाँ कुराको खोजी |\r\n| समालोचना | खास विषयको गुण, दोष आदिको मूल्याङ्कन |\r\n| व्यवसाय | जीवन निर्वाहका लागि गरिने काम |\r\n| ग्रन्थ | महत्त्वपूर्ण मानिएका ठूला आकारका पठनीय सामग्री |\r\n| शिष्टाचार | शिष्ट या सभ्य मानिसको आचरण |\r\n| मुहान | उद्गमस्थल |\r\n| तीर्थाटन | तीर्थयात्रा |\r\n| पसिना | परिश्रम गर्दा शरीरबाट निस्कने पानी |\r\n| मार्ग | बाटो |\r\n| त्रुटि | गल्ती |\r\n| खानी | धेरै चिज उत्पन्न भएको ठाउँ |\r\n| पुरातन | प्राचीन |\r\n\r\n### २. अनुच्छेदबाट प्राविधिक तथा पारिभाषिक शब्दहरू पहिचान गर्नुहोस् :\r\n**अनुच्छेद:** शिक्षण सिकाइको महत्त्वपूर्ण पक्ष शिक्षक हो। शिक्षकले पाठ्यक्रमअनुसार विषयवस्तुमा आधारित भएर शिक्षण गर्नु अपरिहार्य हुन्छ। शिक्षणलाई प्रभावकारी बनाउन पाठयोजना बनाउनसमेत अनिवार्य हुन्छ। पाठयोजनाभित्र विशिष्ट उद्देश्य, पाठ्यवस्तु, शैक्षणिक सामग्री, सिकाइ सहजीकरण क्रियाकलाप, मूल्याङ्कन र गृहकार्य रहन्छन्।\r\n\r\n**उत्तर:** शिक्षण, शिक्षक, पाठ्यक्रम, पाठयोजना, पाठ्यवस्तु, शैक्षणिक, सिकाइ, सहजीकरण, क्रियाकलाप, मूल्याङ्कन र गृहकार्य।\r\n\r\n### ३. पारिभाषिक शब्दहरूलाई वाक्यमा प्रयोग गर्नुहोस् :\r\n* **समालोचनात्मक:** कुनै पनि कुरालाई अन्धविश्वास गर्नुको सट्टा हामी सबैमा **समालोचनात्मक** दृष्टि हुनुपर्छ।\r\n* **विज्ञान:** यो युग **विज्ञान** र प्रविधिको युग हो, त्यसैले वैज्ञानिक शिक्षा अपरिहार्य छ।\r\n* **प्रविधि:** नयाँ **प्रविधि**को विकासले हाम्रो जीवनलाई धेरै सहज बनाएको छ।\r\n* **परिष्कृत:** हामीले समयअनुसार आफ्ना पुराना ज्ञान र सीपलाई **परिष्कृत** गर्दै लैजानुपर्छ।\r\n* **इतिहास:** नेपालको **इतिहास** गौरवपूर्ण छ र यसबाट हामीले धेरै कुरा सिक्न सक्छौँ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## बोध र अभिव्यक्ति (Comprehension and Expression)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका प्रश्नको उत्तर लेख्नुहोस्ः\r\n\r\n**(क) \'मेरो देशको शिक्षा\' निबन्धमा कस्तो व्यवसायमूलक शिक्षाको अपेक्षा गरिएको छ ?**\r\n**उत्तर:** \'मेरो देशको शिक्षा\' निबन्धमा नेपालको भूगोल र पर्यावरण अनुकूल व्यवसायमूलक शिक्षाको अपेक्षा गरिएको छ। जुन ठाउँमा जे कुराको उत्पादन सम्भव छ, त्यही ठाउँमा त्यसैको उत्पादन, प्रशोधन र बजारीकरणसम्बन्धी शिक्षा दिनुपर्छ भन्ने विचार प्रस्तुत गरिएको छ। हाम्रो परम्परागत ज्ञान र सीपलाई आधुनिक प्रविधिसँग जोडेर अगाडि बढाउने शिक्षा सान्दर्भिक हुने बताइएको छ। कृषिमा अत्याधुनिक औजारको प्रयोग गर्ने, विज्ञान र प्रविधियुक्त सीप सिकाउने र समग्रमा विद्यार्थीलाई स्वरोजगार बनाएर आत्मनिर्भर बनाउन सक्ने शिक्षाको अपेक्षा यस निबन्धमा गरिएको छ।\r\n\r\n**(ख) शिक्षाले मानव जीवनका कुन-कुन कुरामा सुधार ल्याउँछ ?**\r\n**उत्तर:** शिक्षाले मानव जीवनका हरेक पक्षमा सकारात्मक सुधार ल्याउँछ। यसले हरेक काममा सहजता ल्याउँछ, जस्तै मोबाइल एप्सबाट अनलाइन टिकट काट्ने, बैङ्किङ कारोबार गर्ने र घरमै सामान मगाउने जस्ता कामहरू गर्न सकिन्छ। शिक्षाले मानिसमा समालोचनात्मक सोचको विकास गरी नयाँ-नयाँ ज्ञान निर्माण गर्न सक्ने बनाउँछ। यसले मानिसलाई कर्तव्य, दायित्व र सद्गुण जस्ता मानवीय मूल्यहरू सिकाउँछ र सही मार्गमा लाग्न प्रेरित गर्छ। शिक्षाले व्यक्तिमा सकारात्मक गुणहरू भरिदिन्छ, परिवर्तनलाई आत्मसात् गर्न सक्ने बनाउँछ र अन्ततः उसलाई आत्मनिर्भर र विवेकशील नागरिकका रूपमा स्थापित गर्छ।\r\n\r\n**(ग) विज्ञान र प्रविधिमा आधारित शिक्षाको महत्त्व लेख्नुहोस्।**\r\n**उत्तर:** आजको युग सूचना र प्रविधिकको युग भएकोले विज्ञान र प्रविधिमा आधारित शिक्षाको महत्त्व अपार छ। यस्तो शिक्षाले हरेक काममा सहजता र दक्षता ल्याएको छ। मोबाइल एप्सबाट अनलाइन कारोबार गर्नेदेखि घरमै बसेर व्यापार-व्यवसाय सञ्चालन गर्नसमेत प्रविधिले सम्भव बनाएको छ। कृषिजन्य वस्तुको अनलाइन बजारीकरण गरी आयआर्जन बढाउन सकिन्छ। इन्टरनेट सूचना र जानकारीको विशाल स्रोत हो, जसको प्रयोगले विद्यार्थीहरूलाई विश्वव्यापी ज्ञानसँग जोड्न सकिन्छ। विज्ञान र प्रविधियुक्त शिक्षाले विद्यार्थीलाई युगीन आवश्यकता र आविष्कारसँग जोड्दै उनीहरूलाई सम्मान, खुसी र सुखपूर्वक बाँच्न आवश्यक ज्ञान र सीप प्रदान गर्दछ।\r\n\r\n**(घ) निबन्धको मुख्य सन्देश के हो ?**\r\n**उत्तर:** \'मेरो देशको शिक्षा\' निबन्धको मुख्य सन्देश नेपालमा युग सुहाउँदो, वैज्ञानिक, व्यावहारिक एवम् व्यावसायिक शिक्षाको आवश्यकता छ भन्ने हो। निबन्धले हाम्रो शिक्षा प्रणालीलाई देशको भूगोल र पर्यावरण अनुकूल बनाउनुपर्नेमा जोड दिएको छ। सीपयुक्त र व्यवसायमूलक शिक्षाले मात्र विद्यार्थीलाई आत्मनिर्भर बनाउन सक्छ र देशमा रोजगारीका अवसरहरू सिर्जना गर्न सक्छ। हाम्रो शिक्षाले प्राचीन ज्ञान र मान्यतालाई आत्मसात् गर्दै तिनलाई समयानुकूल परिष्कृत गर्दै लैजानुपर्छ। समग्रमा, शिक्षाको माध्यमबाट देशलाई समृद्धितर्फ लैजान सकिन्छ र यसका लागि व्यावसायिक, प्राविधिक र मूल्यमा आधारित शिक्षा प्रणाली लागू गर्नुपर्छ भन्नु नै यस निबन्धको मुख्य सन्देश हो।\r\n\r\n### २. व्याख्या गर्नुहोस्ः\r\n\r\n**(क) आत्मनिर्भरताको लक्ष्य स्वरोजगार बन्नु हो।**\r\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:** प्रस्तुत निबन्धांश \'मेरो देशको शिक्षा\' नामक निबन्धबाट साभार गरिएको हो। यस निबन्धमा व्यावसायिक र प्राविधिक शिक्षाको महत्त्वमाथि प्रकाश पार्दै शिक्षाले मानिसलाई आत्मनिर्भर बनाउनुपर्छ भन्ने सन्दर्भमा यो अंश आएको हो।\r\n\r\n**विस्तृत व्याख्या:** शिक्षालाई मानव जातिको तेस्रो आँखा मानिन्छ, जसले ज्ञान र सीप प्रदान गर्दछ। तर, त्यो ज्ञान र सीप तब मात्र सार्थक हुन्छ जब त्यसले व्यक्तिलाई कसैमाथि निर्भर नरही आफ्नै खुट्टामा उभिन सक्षम बनाउँछ। \'आत्मनिर्भरता\' को वास्तविक अर्थ यही हो। र, आत्मनिर्भर बन्ने सबैभन्दा उत्तम मार्ग भनेको \'स्वरोजगार\' हो, अर्थात् आफ्नै लागि रोजगारी सिर्जना गर्नु।\r\n\r\nजब शिक्षालाई सीपसँग, सीपलाई श्रमसँग र श्रमलाई आधुनिक प्रविधिसँग जोडिन्छ, तब व्यक्तिले अरूको जागिर खोज्दै हिँड्नुको सट्टा आफ्नै व्यवसाय सञ्चालन गर्न सक्छ। यस्तो सीपयुक्त शिक्षाले मानिसलाई उद्यमी बन्न उत्प्रेरित गर्छ र आफ्नै देशमा पसिना बगाउने अवसर प्रदान गर्छ। यसरी, शिक्षाको अन्तिम लक्ष्य प्रमाणपत्रको थुप्रो लगाउनु मात्र होइन, बरु व्यक्तिलाई यति सक्षम बनाउनु हो कि उसले आफ्नो र अरूको लागि समेत रोजगारी सिर्जना गर्न सकोस्। त्यसैले, आत्मनिर्भरताको लक्ष्य स्वरोजगार बन्नु हो भनिएको हो।\r\n\r\n**(ख) शिक्षित व्यक्तिमा शिष्टाचार, प्रतिबद्धता, सांस्कृतिक सद्भाव, सामाजिक सद्व्यवहारका क्षमता हुनु जरुरी छ।**\r\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:** यो निबन्धांश \'मेरो देशको शिक्षा\' पाठबाट लिइएको हो, जसमा शिक्षाको उद्देश्य केवल प्राविधिक ज्ञान दिनु मात्र नभई मानवीय र नैतिक मूल्यहरूको विकास गर्नु पनि हो भन्ने सन्दर्भमा यो भनाइ आएको हो।\r\n\r\n**विस्तृत व्याख्या:** शिक्षाको अर्थ केवल किताबी ज्ञान वा प्रमाणपत्र हासिल गर्नु मात्र होइन। वास्तविक शिक्षा त्यो हो, जसले मानिसको व्यवहारमा झल्किन्छ र उसलाई एक असल सामाजिक प्राणी बनाउँछ। एक शिक्षित व्यक्तिमा **शिष्टाचार** (अरूप्रति सम्मानजनक व्यवहार), **प्रतिबद्धता** (आफ्नो काम र वचनप्रतिको निष्ठा), **सांस्कृतिक सद्भाव** (आफ्नो र अरूको संस्कृतिप्रति सम्मान) र **सामाजिक सद्व्यवहार** (समाजमा मिल्न सक्ने क्षमता) जस्ता गुणहरू हुनु अनिवार्य छ।\r\n\r\nयदि कक्षा दसमा पढ्ने विद्यार्थीलाई आफूभन्दा ठुलालाई आदर गर्न आउँदैन भने उसको शिक्षाको कुनै अर्थ रहँदैन। शिक्षाले मानिसलाई नैतिकवान, सहिष्णु, विवेकशील र अनुशासित बनाउनुपर्छ। सकारात्मक गुणहरूले भरिपूर्ण व्यक्तिले मात्र समाजमा सकारात्मक योगदान दिन सक्छ। त्यसैले, हाम्रो शिक्षा सैद्धान्तिकभन्दा बढी व्यावहारिक हुनुपर्छ र यसले हामीमा असल बानी र व्यवहारको विकास गर्न सक्नुपर्छ भन्ने गहिरो आशय यस निबन्धांशमा व्यक्त भएको छ।\r\n\r\n### ३. \'मेरो देशको शिक्षा\' निबन्धका आधारमा नेपालको भावी शिक्षा कस्तो हुनुपर्छ, समीक्षात्मक उत्तर लेख्नुहोस्।\r\n**उत्तर:** \'मेरो देशको शिक्षा\' निबन्धले नेपालको भावी शिक्षा कस्तो हुनुपर्छ भन्नेबारे एक स्पष्ट मार्गचित्र प्रस्तुत गरेको छ। यस निबन्धका आधारमा नेपालको भावी शिक्षा प्रणाली निम्न विशेषताहरूले युक्त हुनुपर्छ:\r\n१. **युगानुकूल, विज्ञान र प्रविधियुक्त:** देशको शिक्षा बदलिँदो युगसँगै समायोजन हुन सक्ने, विज्ञान र प्रविधिसँग हातेमालो गर्ने खालको हुनुपर्छ। विद्यार्थीहरूलाई सूचना प्रविधिमा पोख्त र दक्ष बनाउनुपर्छ।\r\n२. **व्यावसायिक र सीपमूलक:** शिक्षालाई सीपसँग, सीपलाई श्रमसँग र श्रमलाई आधुनिक प्रविधिसँग जोड्नुपर्छ। यसले विद्यार्थीलाई स्वरोजगार र आत्मनिर्भर बन्न मद्दत गर्छ, जसले देशमा रोजगारी सिर्जना गर्छ।\r\n३. **भूगोल र पर्यावरण अनुकूल:** नेपालको शिक्षा यहाँको भूगोल र पर्यावरण अनुकूल हुनुपर्छ। हिमाल, पहाड र तराईको विशेषताअनुसार फरक-फरक व्यावसायिक शिक्षाको विकास गर्नुपर्छ।\r\n४. **मौलिकता र आधुनिकताको सङ्गम:** हाम्रो शिक्षाले पूर्वीय ज्ञान, दर्शन र परम्परागत सीपलाई संरक्षण गर्दै पाश्चात्य विज्ञान र प्रविधिलाई पनि आत्मसात् गर्नुपर्छ।\r\n५. **मूल्यमा आधारित:** शिक्षाले केवल दक्ष जनशक्ति मात्र होइन, असल नागरिक पनि उत्पादन गर्नुपर्छ। शिक्षित व्यक्तिमा शिष्टाचार, प्रतिबद्धता, सांस्कृतिक सद्भाव र सामाजिक सद्व्यवहार जस्ता सकारात्मक र नैतिक गुणहरू हुनुपर्छ।\r\n६. **समालोचनात्मक चिन्तनमा आधारित:** शिक्षाले विद्यार्थीमा रटेर पास हुने प्रवृत्तिलाई निरुत्साहित गर्दै हरेक कुरालाई तर्क, विवेक र विश्लेषणका आधारमा हेर्ने समालोचनात्मक सोचको विकास गर्नुपर्छ।\r\nसमग्रमा, नेपालको भावी शिक्षा आफ्नो मौलिकतासहितको युग सुहाउँदो, व्यावसायिक, प्राविधिक र आधुनिक हुनुपर्छ। यस्तो शिक्षाले मात्र देशलाई समृद्धिको मार्गमा डोऱ्याउन सक्छ।\r\n\r\n### ४. दिइएको अनुच्छेद पढी सोधिएका प्रश्नको उत्तर दिनुहोस्ः\r\n**(क) कानुन भन्नाले के बुझिन्छ ?**\r\n**उत्तर:** राज्यको शासन सञ्चालन गर्ने कार्य विधि, पद्धति एवम् नियमको समष्टिलाई कानुन भन्ने बुझिन्छ।\r\n\r\n**(ख) कानुनका स्रोत के के हुन् ?**\r\n**उत्तर:** विधायन, नजिर, प्रथा तथा परम्परा, संप्रतिज्ञा, अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय अदालतबाट भएका फैसला, अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय सन्धि, सम्झौता, कानुनविद्का राय र संहिताकरण कानुनका स्रोतहरु हुन्।\r\n\r\n**(ग) कानुनलाई किन बाध्यकारी शक्ति मानिन्छ ?**\r\n**उत्तर:** कानुनको अवज्ञा दण्डनीय हुने भएकाले यसलाई बाध्यकारी शक्ति मानिन्छ।\r\n\r\n**(घ) कानुनको महत्त्व लेख्नुहोस्।**\r\n**उत्तर:** शासन व्यवस्थालाई निरङ्कुश हुनबाट रोक्न, नागरिकलाई अधिकार दिन, असीमित अधिकारलाई नियन्त्रण गर्न, सामाजिक सदाचार र नैतिकता कायम गर्न, समतामूलक समाज निर्माण गर्न, न्याय प्रशासनलाई चुस्त र दुरुस्त बनाउन कानुनको महत्त्व रहेको हुन्छ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## भाषिक संरचना र वर्णविन्यास (Linguistic Structure and Spelling)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका कर्तृवाच्यका वाक्यलाई कर्मवाच्यमा बदल्नुहोस्ः\r\n* **(क) विविषा कम्प्युटर किन्थिन्।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** विविषाद्वारा कम्प्युटर किनिन्थ्यो।\r\n* **(ख) दर्शन लेखाशास्त्र पढ्‌दै छन्।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** दर्शनद्वारा लेखाशास्त्र पढिँदै छ।\r\n* **(ग) समीक्षाले गीत गाइन्।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** समीक्षाद्वारा गीत गाइयो।\r\n* **(घ) विद्यार्थीले शिक्षक भेटे।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** विद्यार्थीद्वारा शिक्षक भेटिनुभयो।\r\n* **(ङ) भाइले फुटबल किन्यो।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** भाइद्वारा फुटबल किनियो।\r\n* **(च) उसले थुप्रै किताब खोजेको छ।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** ऊद्वारा थुप्रै किताब खोजिएका छन्।\r\n\r\n### २. दिइएका कर्मवाच्यका वाक्यलाई कर्तृवाच्यमा बदल्नुहोस्ः\r\n* **(क) मेनुकाद्वारा नेपाली पढाइन्छ।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** मेनुकाले नेपाली पढाउँछिन्।\r\n* **(ख) आफू त लेख लेखिँदै छ।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** म त लेख लेख्दै छु।\r\n* **(ग) भोलि त गीत गाइएला।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** उसले भोलि गीत गाउला।\r\n* **(घ) मद्वारा अनुस्का पुस्तकालयमा भेटिइन्।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** मैले अनुस्कालाई पुस्तकालयमा भेटें।\r\n* **(ङ) हामीद्वारा खेलकुदमा सहभागी भइयो।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** हामी खेलकुदमा सहभागी भयौँ।\r\n* **(च) विश्वकप फुटबल खुब हेरियो।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** मैले विश्वकप फुटबल खुब हेरें।\r\n\r\n### ३. दिइएका कर्तृवाच्यका वाक्यलाई भाववाच्यमा बदल्नुहोस्ः\r\n* **(क) म बिहान उठ्छु।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** आफू बिहान उठिन्छ।\r\n* **(ख) उनीहरू घरबाट हिँडेछन्।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** उनीहरूद्वारा घरबाट हिँडिएछ।\r\n* **(ग) हामी पोखरातिर घुम्न जान्छौँ।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** हामीद्वारा पोखरा घुम्न गइन्छ।\r\n* **(घ) उनीहरू यहीं बसे।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** उनीहरूद्वारा यहीँ बसियो।\r\n* **(ङ) साथीहरू मस्तसँग हाँस्थे।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** साथीहरूद्वारा मस्तसँग हाँसिन्थ्यो।\r\n* **(च) म दिक्तेल बजार घुम्ने छु।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** आफू त दिक्तेल बजार घुमिने छ।\r\n\r\n### ४. दिइएका भाववाच्यका वाक्यलाई कर्तृवाच्यमा बदल्नुहोस्ः\r\n* **(क) तिजमा मस्तसँग नाचिन्छ।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** दिदी तिजमा मस्तसँग नाच्नुहुन्छ।\r\n* **(ख) कहाँबाट आइँदै छ ?**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** तिमी कहाँबाट आउँदै छौ ?\r\n* **(ग) मैदानमा कुदियो।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** म मैदानमा कुदें।\r\n* **(घ) सानो हुँदा कुरै नबुझी रोइन्थ्यो।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** म सानो हुँदा कुरै नबुझी रुन्थें।\r\n* **(ङ) पढ्दा पढ्दै निदाइएछ।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** भाइ पढ्दापढ्दै निदाएछ।\r\n* **(च) पर्सि साफेबगर पुगिने छ।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** हामी पर्सि साफेबगर पुग्ने छौँ।\r\n\r\n### ५. दिइएको अनुच्छेदका \'य\' र \'ए\' प्रयोगसम्बन्धी अशुद्धि सच्याएर लेख्नुहोस्ः\r\n**अशुद्ध:** यउटा विद्यार्थी पढ्न विद्यालए गयछ। उसलाई प्रशासनिक कार्यालए खोज्न समए लागेछ। एसरी खोज्ने क्रममा साथीले सहयोग गरेछन्। उसले साथीलाई धन्यवाद दियछ।\r\n**शुद्ध:** **एउटा** विद्यार्थी पढ्न **विद्यालय** **गएछ**। उसलाई प्रशासनिक **कार्यालय** खोज्न **समय** लागेछ। **यसरी** खोज्ने क्रममा साथीले सहयोग गरेछन्। उसले साथीलाई धन्यवाद **दिएछ**।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## सिर्जना र परियोजना कार्य (Creative and Project Work)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका शीर्षकमा १५० शब्दसम्मको निबन्ध लेख्नुहोस्ः\r\n\r\n#### **नेपालको आर्थिक विकासमा कृषिको भूमिका**\r\nनेपाल एक कृषि प्रधान देश हो, जहाँ आज पनि करिब ६० प्रतिशतभन्दा बढी जनसङ्ख्या कृषि पेसामा निर्भर छ। देशको कुल ग्राहस्थ्य उत्पादनमा कृषिको योगदान लगभग ३३ प्रतिशत रहेको छ, जसले यसलाई राष्ट्रिय अर्थतन्त्रको मेरुदण्डको रूपमा स्थापित गर्दछ। हाम्रो देशको भौगोलिक विविधताले कृषिमा अपार सम्भावना बोकेको छ; हिमालमा पशुपालन र जडीबुटी, पहाडमा फलफूल र तरकारी खेती, तथा तराईमा खाद्यान्न उत्पादन गर्न सकिन्छ।\r\n\r\nकृषि केवल गाँस, वास र कपासको स्रोत मात्र होइन, यो औद्योगिक विकासको मुख्य आधार पनि हो। कृषिमा आधारित उद्योगहरूलाई आवश्यक कच्चा पदार्थको आपूर्ति कृषि क्षेत्रबाटै हुन्छ। कृषि उत्पादन बढाउन सकेमा मात्र औद्योगिकरणले गति लिन सक्छ। यद्यपि, परम्परागत खेती प्रणाली, खण्डीकृत जमिन र सरकारी प्रयासहरूको सीमितताका कारण नेपालको कृषिले अपेक्षित प्रतिफल दिन सकेको छैन।\r\n\r\nअबको आवश्यकता भनेको कृषिलाई आधुनिकीकरण र व्यवसायीकरण गर्नु हो। सिँचाइ, मल, बिउ र प्रविधिको सहज पहुँच सुनिश्चित गर्दै युवाहरूलाई यस पेसामा आकर्षित गर्न सकेमा कृषिले देशको मुहार फेर्न सक्छ। व्यावसायिक कृषिले गरिबी र बेरोजगारी घटाउनुका साथै देशलाई खाद्य सुरक्षामा आत्मनिर्भर बनाउँदै आर्थिक विकासको दिशामा लम्काउन महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका खेल्न सक्छ।\r\n\r\n#### **अभिभावकप्रति मेरो जिम्मेवारी**\r\nमानिसको जीवनमा उसको परिवार नै सबैभन्दा पहिलो र महत्त्वपूर्ण पाठशाला हो। मलाई यो सुन्दर संसार देखाउनुहुने मेरा बुबाआमाप्रति मेरो विशेष जिम्मेवारी छ। एउटी आमाले सन्तानलाई जन्म दिन अनगिन्ती कष्ट सहन्छिन् र आफ्नो मायाले हुर्काउँछिन्। आमाबाबुको सहयोग, प्रेरणा र स्नेहबाट नै बालकको भविष्य निर्माण हुन्छ। यदि कोही डाक्टर, इन्जिनियर वा उच्च पदस्थ व्यक्ति बन्छ भने उसको पछाडि मातापिताको बलिदान र प्रेरणाको शक्ति लुकेको हुन्छ।\r\n\r\nमेरा लागि मेरा अभिभावक नै मेरा संसार हुन्। उहाँहरूले देखाउनुभएको बाटोमा हिँड्नु र उहाँहरूको सपना पूरा गर्नु मेरो मुख्य कर्तव्य हो। म सधैँ यो ख्याल राख्नेछु कि मबाट कुनै गलत कार्य नहोस्, जसले गर्दा उहाँहरूलाई लज्जित तुल्याओस्। आजको भौतिकवादी पुस्तामा अभिभावकलाई छोडेर विदेश पलायन हुने वा विवाहपछि स्वार्थी बन्ने चलन बढेको छ, तर मबाट यो भुल कहिल्यै हुने छैन। \'मातृदेवो भव, पितृदेवो भव\' अर्थात् मातापिता देवता हुन्। उहाँहरूलाई पूर्ण सम्मान दिनु र जीवनभर उहाँहरूको सहारा बनेर उहाँहरूलाई खुसी दिने प्रयास गर्नु मेरो परम जिम्मेवारी हो।\r\n\r\n#### **सिकाइमा प्रविधिको उपयोग**\r\nआजको युग विज्ञान र प्रविधिको युग हो। प्रविधिको प्रयोगले विद्यार्थीको सिकाइ, शिक्षकको क्षमता विकास र विद्यालयको व्यवस्थापन प्रक्रियालाई सहज र प्रभावकारी बनाएको छ। रेडियो, टेलिभिजन, इमेल, इन्टरनेट जस्ता साधनहरू सिकाइमा बढी प्रयोग हुने गर्दछन्। यस्ता प्रविधिलाई परम्परागत सामग्रीभन्दा बढी सान्दर्भिक, उपयुक्त एवं प्रभावकारी रूपमा प्रयोग गर्न सकिन्छ।\r\n\r\nप्रविधिको प्रयोगले विद्यार्थीहरूलाई कक्षाकोठाको चौघेराबाट बाहिर निकालेर विश्वव्यापी ज्ञानको भण्डारसँग जोड्दछ। विद्यार्थीहरूले आवश्यक पाठ्यसामग्री इन्टरनेटबाट कुनै पनि बेला डाउनलोड गर्न सक्छन्। यसले विद्यार्थीमा आत्मविश्वास र खोजी गर्ने बानीको विकास हुन्छ। कोरोनाको बन्दाबन्दीका समयमा यसको महत्त्व अझ बढेर गयो, जब प्रविधिले घरमै बसेर सिकाइलाई निरन्तरता दिन सम्भव बनायो।\r\n\r\nयद्यपि, प्रविधिको सहज पहुँच र दक्ष जनशक्तिको अभाव यसका चुनौतीहरू हुन्। तर, यस्ता चुनौतीहरूलाई सामना गर्दै प्रविधिको सदुपयोग गर्न सकेमा यसले शिक्षण सिकाइमा आमूल परिवर्तन ल्याउन सक्छ।', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-16 03:05:11'),
(76, 11203, '# चिकित्सा विज्ञान र आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा - कक्षा १० (पूर्ण विस्तृत गाइड)\r\n\r\n\"चिकित्सा विज्ञान र आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा\" निबन्धले आधुनिक एलोप्याथिक चिकित्सा र हजारौँ वर्ष पुरानो आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा पद्धतिको परिचय, विशेषता, भिन्नता र महत्त्वलाई उजागर गर्दछ। यसले विद्यार्थीहरूलाई दुवै उपचार पद्धतिको सकारात्मक र नकारात्मक पक्षबारे जानकारी दिँदै नेपालमा उपलब्ध जडीबुटीको महत्त्वलाई पनि प्रस्ट्याउँछ। यो विस्तृत गाइडले परीक्षाको तयारीका लागि सबै प्रश्नहरूको गहन र पूर्ण उत्तरहरू समावेश गर्दछ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## शब्दभण्डार (Vocabulary)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका अर्थ आउने शब्द पाठबाट खोजेर लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n* **स्नायुसम्बन्धी रोग:** पक्षाघात\r\n* **चिरफारका पद्धतिले गरिने रोगको उपचार:** शल्यक्रिया\r\n* **हानि वा घात पुऱ्याउने:** नकारात्मक प्रभाव\r\n* **प्रतिरोधका लागि तयार पारिएको:** प्रतिरोधात्मक\r\n\r\n### २. दिइएका शब्द र तिनका अर्थबिच जोडा मिलाउनुहोस् :\r\n\r\n| **शब्द** | **अर्थ** |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| प्रादुर्भाव | कुनै वस्तु वा विषयको उत्पत्ति वा उद्भव |\r\n| अत्युक्ति | बढाइचढाइ गरिने वर्णन वा कथन |\r\n| अद्यावधिक | आजसम्मको अवस्था, विगतदेखि हालसम्म |\r\n| त्रिदोष | शरीरमा हुने वात, पित्त र कफको प्रकोपबाट हुने रोग |\r\n| निषेध | प्रतिबन्ध वा रोक लगाउने काम |\r\n| अधीरता | धैर्य नभएको अवस्था, अस्थिर |\r\n\r\n### ३. चिकित्सा क्षेत्रमा प्रयोग हुने प्राविधिक पारिभाषिक शब्दको अर्थ लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n* **आयुर्वेद:** जडीबुटी तथा प्राकृतिक तत्वका माध्यमबाट गरिने संसारकै सबैभन्दा पुरानो उपचार पद्धति।\r\n* **एलोप्याथिक:** प्रयोगशालामा निर्मित रासायनिक औषधि र आधुनिक प्रविधिको प्रयोगबाट उपचार गरिने चिकित्सा पद्धति, जसलाई डाक्टरी उपचार पनि भनिन्छ।\r\n* **वैकल्पिक चिकित्सा:** मुख्य वा परम्परागत उपचार पद्धतिको सट्टा वा त्यसको सहायकको रूपमा प्रयोग गरिने अन्य उपचार पद्धतिहरू।\r\n* **होमियोप्याथिक चिकित्सा:** जुन पदार्थले स्वस्थ शरीरमा रोगको लक्षण उत्पन्न गराउँछ, त्यसै पदार्थको सूक्ष्म मात्रा प्रयोग गरी रोगको निदान गर्ने समान लक्षणमा आधारित उपचार पद्धति।\r\n* **शल्यक्रिया:** शरीरका अङ्गहरूलाई चिरफार गरी गरिने रोगको उपचार।\r\n* **पक्षाघात:** शरीरको कुनै भाग वा अङ्ग नचल्ने वा चेतनाशून्य हुने स्नायुसम्बन्धी रोग।\r\n* **आकस्मिक उपचार:** दुर्घटना, हृदयाघात जस्ता एक्कासि आइलाग्ने गम्भीर स्वास्थ्य अवस्थामा तुरुन्तै गरिने उपचार।\r\n* **निर्मूलीकरण:** कुनै पनि रोगलाई जडैदेखि हटाउने वा पूर्ण रूपमा निदान गर्ने काम।\r\n\r\n### ४. निबन्धमा प्रयोग भएका पारिभाषिक र प्राविधिक शब्द टिपी वाक्यमा प्रयोग गर्नुहोस् :\r\n* **एलोप्याथिक:** **एलोप्याथिक** लाई डाक्टरी उपचार पद्धति भनिन्छ।\r\n* **चिकित्सा:** **चिकित्सा** बाट धेरै मानिसको रोगको उपचार भएको छ।\r\n* **होमियोप्याथी:** **होमियोप्याथी** समान लक्षण उब्जाउने औषधीय पदार्थद्वारा नै कुनै रोगको निदान गर्ने पद्धति हो।\r\n* **एपेन्डिसाइटिस:** **एपेन्डिसाइटिस** शल्यक्रियाबाट उपचार गर्न सकिन्छ।\r\n* **हृदयाघात:** **हृदयाघात** का कारण बर्सेनि हजारौं मान्छेको ज्यान जाने गर्छ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## बोध र अभिव्यक्ति (Comprehension and Expression)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका प्रश्नको उत्तर भन्नुहोस् :\r\n* **(क) \'चिकित्सा विज्ञान र आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा\' निबन्ध कति अनुच्छेदमा संरचित छ ?**\r\n    **उत्तर:** \'चिकित्सा विज्ञान र आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा\' निबन्ध १२ अनुच्छेदमा संरचित छ।\r\n* **(ख) वाक्य सङ्ख्याका दृष्टिले सबैभन्दा छोटो र लामो अनुच्छेद कुन हो ?**\r\n    **उत्तर:** वाक्य सङ्ख्याका दृष्टिले सबैभन्दा छोटो अन्तिम र लामो अनुच्छेद तेस्रो हो।\r\n* **(ग) निबन्धमा आयुर्वेद चिकित्साका शाखाको चर्चा गरिएको विषयवस्तु कुन अनुच्छेदमा रहेको छ ?**\r\n    **उत्तर:** निबन्धमा आयुर्वेद चिकित्साका शाखाको चर्चा गरिएको विषयवस्तु पाँचौं अनुच्छेदमा रहेको छ।\r\n* **(घ) निबन्धको अन्तिम अनुच्छेदको आशय के हो ?**\r\n    **उत्तर:** निबन्धको अन्तिम अनुच्छेदको आशय निरोगी र सुखी जीवन बाँच्नु छ भने आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा पद्धतिको प्रयोग गर्नुपर्छ भन्ने हो।\r\n\r\n### २. दिइएको निबन्धांश मौन पठन गरी सोधिएका प्रश्नको उत्तर दिनुहोस् :\r\n* **(क) निबन्धांशमा चिकित्सा विज्ञानका कुन कुन शाखाको चर्चा गरिएको छ ?**\r\n    **उत्तर:** निबन्धांशमा चिकित्साका निरोधात्मक, प्रवर्धनात्मक र उपचारात्मक शाखाको चर्चा गरिएको छ।\r\n* **(ख) प्रवर्धनात्मक उपचार पद्धति कस्तो हुन्छ ?**\r\n    **उत्तर:** पोषण कार्यक्रम, स्वास्थ्य शिक्षा, वातावरणीय सरसफाइ कार्यक्रम जस्ता सेवाबाट उपचार गरिने पद्धति प्रवर्धनात्मक उपचार पद्धति हो।\r\n* **(ग) उपचारात्मक स्वास्थ्य सेवामा कुन कुन पद्धति पर्छन् ?**\r\n    **उत्तर:** उपचारात्मक स्वास्थ्य सेवामा आधुनिक चिकित्सा, आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा, होमियोप्याथी, प्राकृतिक चिकित्सा, योग चिकित्सा, मनोचिकित्सा, अकुप्रेसर, युनानी चिकित्सा पद्धति पर्छन्।\r\n* **(घ) तपाईँलाई कुन उपचार पद्धति मन पर्छ, किन ?**\r\n    **उत्तर:** रोग नियन्त्रणका लागि रोग लाग्नुपूर्व नै स्वास्थ्य सेवा प्रदान गरिने भएकोले मलाई निरोधात्मक उपचार पद्धति मन पर्छ।\r\n\r\n### ३. दिइएका प्रश्नको उत्तर लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n**(क) वर्तमान चिकित्सा विज्ञानका बारेमा वर्णन गर्नुहोस्।**\r\n**उत्तर:** वर्तमान चिकित्सा विज्ञान, जसलाई एलोप्याथिक उपचार पद्धति वा डाक्टरी उपचार पनि भनिन्छ, हाल विश्वमा सर्वाधिक प्रयोगमा रहेको र लोकप्रिय चिकित्सा पद्धति मानिन्छ। यस पद्धतिमा रोग निको पार्नका लागि सुरुमै रोग घटाउने औषधि दिइन्छ। छिटो निको हुनु, विशेषज्ञ डाक्टर र औषधि सजिलै उपलब्ध हुनु यसका प्रमुख विशेषता हुन्। यो पद्धति आपतकालीन अवस्थामा निकै प्रभावकारी साबित भएको छ। शल्यक्रियामार्फत गम्भीर रोगहरू निको पार्नु पनि यसको महत्त्वपूर्ण विशेषता हो। साथै, यसमा प्रयोग हुने प्रविधि र उपकरणहरू समय-समयमा अद्यावधिक गरिनु, सानादेखि ठुला सबै रोगको उपचारमा प्रभावकारी हुनु र ठुलो रोग लाग्नुअघि नै खोपमार्फत रोकथाम गर्नु यसका थप विशेषताहरू हुन्।\r\n\r\n**(ख) किन आयुर्वेद चिकित्साको लोकप्रियता बढ्दै गएको छ, लेख्नुहोस्।**\r\n**उत्तर:** आयुर्वेद चिकित्साका धेरै सकारात्मक पक्ष भएकाले यसको लोकप्रियता दिनानुदिन बढ्दै गएको छ। यसले शरीरको शुद्धीकरण गर्ने र रोग प्रतिरोधात्मक क्षमता बढाउने काम गर्छ। यस पद्धतिमा बिरामीको आत्मा, मन र शारीरिक प्रकृतिलाई समेत ध्यानमा राखेर समग्र पक्षको उपचार गरिन्छ। यसका प्रमुख विशेषताहरूमा जडीबुटीको प्रयोग हुनु, चिरफार कम हुनु, रोगको लक्षणका आधारमा उपचार गरिनु, र उपचारका लागि आवश्यक जडीबुटी नेपालमै पाइनु पर्दछन्। साथै, यसले रोगको नियन्त्रण मात्र नगरी निर्मूल गर्ने लक्ष्य राख्छ। उपचारमा महँगा उपकरणको आवश्यकता नपर्नु, औषधिको नकारात्मक प्रभाव (साइड इफेक्ट) कम हुनु र कम खर्चिलो हुनुले पनि यसलाई लोकप्रिय बनाएको छ। यी कारणहरूले गर्दा आयुर्वेद चिकित्साप्रति मानिसको आकर्षण बढेको हो।\r\n\r\n**(ग) उपचारात्मक स्वास्थ्य सेवाअन्तर्गत कस्ता उपचारात्मक पद्धति पर्छन् ?**\r\n**उत्तर:** रोग लागेपछि त्यसलाई निको पार्नका लागि प्रदान गरिने स्वास्थ्य सेवालाई उपचारात्मक स्वास्थ्य सेवा भनिन्छ। यस सेवाअन्तर्गत आधुनिक चिकित्सा विज्ञान, आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा पद्धति, होमियोप्याथी, प्राकृतिक चिकित्सा, योग चिकित्सा, मनोचिकित्सा, अकुप्रेसर, र युनानी चिकित्सा जस्ता अनेकौँ उपचार पद्धतिहरू पर्दछन्।\r\n\r\n**(घ) आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा पद्धति र आधुनिक चिकित्सा पद्धतिका मुख्य फरक के के हुन् ?**\r\n\r\n| **आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा पद्धति** | **आधुनिक चिकित्सा पद्धति (एलोप्याथिक)** |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| शरीरको शुद्धीकरण र रोग प्रतिरोधात्मक क्षमता बढाउनमा केन्द्रित छ। | रोग निको पार्नका लागि सुरुमै रोग घटाउने औषधि दिइन्छ। |\r\n| उपचारमा जडीबुटीको प्रयोग हुन्छ र यसलाई प्राकृतिक उपचार पद्धति भनिन्छ। | उपचारमा आधुनिक औषधि, खोप, स्लाइन आदिको प्रयोग हुन्छ र यसलाई डाक्टरी उपचार भनिन्छ। |\r\n| उपचारमा उपकरणको आवश्यकता कम पर्छ, औषधिको नकारात्मक प्रभाव कम हुन्छ र यो कम खर्चिलो छ। | छिटो निको हुन्छ, आधुनिक उपकरण आवश्यक पर्छ, यो खर्चिलो छ र विशेषज्ञ डाक्टर सजिलै उपलब्ध हुन्छन्। |\r\n| स्वस्थ व्यक्तिले पनि पोषण र रोग प्रतिरोधात्मक क्षमता बढाउन प्रयोग गर्न सक्छन्। | गम्भीर प्रकृति र आकस्मिक उपचार गर्नुपर्ने बिरामीहरूका लागि यो महत्त्वपूर्ण छ। |\r\n| उपचार अवधि लामो भए पनि रोग फेरि बल्झिने सम्भावना कम हुन्छ। | उपचार अवधि छोटो भए पनि रोग फेरि बल्झिने सम्भावना रहन सक्छ। |\r\n\r\n### ४. व्याख्या गर्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n**(क) आयुर्वेदिक चिकित्सा आधुनिक चिकित्सा पद्धतिभन्दा भिन्न र संसारकै सर्वप्राचीन उपचार पद्धति हो।**\r\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:** यो वाक्यांश \"चिकित्सा विज्ञान र आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा\" निबन्धबाट साभार गरिएको हो। यसले आयुर्वेद चिकित्साको ऐतिहासिकता र मौलिकतालाई आधुनिक चिकित्सा पद्धतिसँग तुलना गर्दै यसको प्राचीन महत्त्वलाई उजागर गरेको छ।\r\n\r\n**विस्तृत व्याख्या:** आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा र आधुनिक चिकित्सा पद्धति मौलिक रूपमै भिन्न छन्। आयुर्वेदले शरीरको शुद्धीकरण र रोग प्रतिरोधात्मक क्षमता बढाएर रोगलाई निर्मूल गर्ने लक्ष्य राख्छ भने आधुनिक चिकित्साले तत्काल लक्षणहरूलाई दबाएर छिटो निको पार्नेमा जोड दिन्छ।\r\n\r\nआयुर्वेद संसारकै सर्वप्राचीन चिकित्साशास्त्र हो भन्ने कुराका पछाडि बलिया ऐतिहासिक प्रमाणहरू छन्। यसको चर्चा हिन्दू धर्मको चौथो वेद, अथर्ववेदमा पाइन्छ। यो इशापूर्व ३ हजारदेखि ५० हजार वर्ष पहिले भारतवर्षबाट विकास भएको मानिन्छ। यसको ज्ञानका मुख्य स्रोत ब्रह्मालाई मानिन्छ, जसले यो ज्ञान दक्ष प्रजापति, अश्विनीकुमारहरू, इन्द्र हुँदै आयुर्वेदका सुरुवातकर्ता मानिने धनवन्तरीसम्म पुऱ्याएको विश्वास गरिन्छ। रामायण र महाभारत जस्ता प्राचीन ग्रन्थहरूमा पनि ऋषिहरूले आयुर्वेदको प्रयोगबाट उपचार गरेका प्रसङ्गहरू भेटिन्छन्। यसको विपरीत, आधुनिक चिकित्सा पद्धतिको सुरुवात अठारौँ शताब्दी पछि मात्र भएको मानिन्छ। यी ऐतिहासिक तथ्यहरूले आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा आधुनिक पद्धतिभन्दा भिन्न र संसारकै सबैभन्दा पुरानो उपचार पद्धति हो भन्ने कुरालाई स्पष्ट रूपमा पुष्टि गर्दछ।\r\n\r\n**(ख) आयुर्वेदिक औषधीका लागि नेपाल भूस्वर्ग मानिन्छ।**\r\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:** यो वाक्यांश \"चिकित्सा विज्ञान र आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा\" निबन्धबाट लिइएको हो। यसले नेपालको प्राकृतिक सम्पदा र जैविक विविधताले आयुर्वेद चिकित्साका लागि प्रदान गरेको अपार सम्भावनालाई सङ्केत गर्दछ।\r\n\r\n**विस्तृत व्याख्या:** आयुर्वेदिक उपचार पद्धतिको मुख्य आधार नै जडीबुटी हो, र नेपाल जडीबुटीको विशाल भण्डार हो। नेपालको हिमाल, पहाड र तराईमा पाइने जैविक विविधताका कारण यहाँ विविध औषधीय गुण भएका जडीबुटीहरू उपलब्ध छन्। परापूर्वकालदेखि नै हाम्रा पुर्खाहरूले यिनै जडीबुटीबाट उपचार गरी दीर्घजीवन हासिल गरेका थिए। आज विकसित देशहरूले समेत यिनै जडीबुटीलाई आधुनिक औषधि उद्योगका लागि बहुमूल्य कच्चा पदार्थको रूपमा प्रयोग गरेका छन्।\r\n\r\nरामायणमा युद्धमा घाइते भएका लक्ष्मणको उपचारका लागि सञ्जीवनी बुटी लिन नेपालको हिमालय क्षेत्रमा हनुमानलाई पठाइएको प्रसङ्गले परापूर्वकालदेखि नै नेपाल आयुर्वेदिक जडीबुटीको केन्द्र रहेको पुष्टि गर्छ। नेपालमा तुलसी, सर्पगन्धा, जटामसी, पाँचऔँले, यार्सागुम्बा जस्ता बहुमूल्य र दुर्लभ जडीबुटीहरू पाइन्छन्। विशेषगरी डोल्पा, जुम्ला, मुगु, हुम्ला जस्ता उच्च पहाडी जिल्लाहरू जडीबुटीका लागि प्रख्यात छन्। यदि यी जडीबुटीहरूको सही सम्भाव्यता अध्ययन, संरक्षण र सदुपयोग गर्ने हो भने यसले नेपालको समृद्धिको ढोका खोल्न सक्छ। यही अपार प्राकृतिक सम्पदाका कारण नेपाललाई आयुर्वेदिक औषधिका लागि \'भूस्वर्ग\' मानिएको हो।\r\n\r\n### ५. आधुनिक चिकित्सा पद्धतिका सकारात्मक र नकारात्मक पक्षबारे समीक्षा गर्नुहोस्।\r\n**उत्तर:** \'चिकित्सा विज्ञान र आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा\' निबन्धले आधुनिक चिकित्सा पद्धतिका सबल र कमजोर दुवै पक्षलाई उजागर गरेको छ।\r\n\r\n**सकारात्मक पक्ष:**\r\nआधुनिक चिकित्सा पद्धति, जसलाई एलोप्याथी पनि भनिन्छ, आज विश्वमा सर्वाधिक लोकप्रिय छ। यसका मुख्य सबल पक्षहरूमा रोगको छिटो निदान र उपचार हुनु, विशेषज्ञ डाक्टर र औषधिहरू सजिलै उपलब्ध हुनु, र आपतकालीन अवस्थाहरूमा यो अत्यन्तै प्रभावकारी हुनु पर्दछन्। शल्यक्रियामार्फत गम्भीर रोगहरू निको पार्नु र खोपको माध्यमबाट रोगहरू लाग्नुअघि नै रोकथाम गर्नु यसका महत्त्वपूर्ण उपलब्धिहरू हुन्। यसले गर्दा मानिसहरूको औसत आयु बढेको छ र स्वास्थ्य सेवा पहिलेभन्दा सुलभ भएको छ।\r\n\r\n**नकारात्मक पक्ष:**\r\nयति धेरै सकारात्मक पक्ष हुँदाहुँदै पनि यसका केही नकारात्मक पक्षहरू पनि छन्। आधुनिक औषधि र स्वास्थ्य सेवा प्रायः अत्यधिक महँगो हुन्छ, जसले गर्दा यो विपन्न मानिसहरूको पहुँचभन्दा बाहिर छ। औषधिहरूले कहिलेकाहीँ गम्भीर साइड इफेक्टहरू निम्त्याउन सक्छन्। एन्टिबायोटिक जस्ता औषधिहरूको अत्यधिक प्रयोगले शरीरको प्रतिरोधी क्षमतालाई कमजोर बनाउँदै लगेको छ। कहिलेकाहीँ यो पद्धतिले रोगको मूल कारणलाई सम्बोधन गर्नुको सट्टा केवल लक्षणहरूको उपचारमा मात्र केन्द्रित भएको आरोप पनि लाग्ने गर्छ।\r\n\r\n**निष्कर्ष:**\r\nयति हुँदाहुँदै पनि, गम्भीर प्रकृति र आकस्मिक उपचार गर्नुपर्ने बिरामीहरूका लागि आधुनिक चिकित्सा पद्धतिको विकल्प छैन।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## भाषिक संरचना र वर्णविन्यास (Linguistic Structure and Spelling)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका उपसर्ग लगाई एक-एकओटा शब्द निर्माण गर्नुहोस् :\r\n* **अ:** अ + न्याय = अन्याय\r\n* **बि:** बि + सन्चो = बिसन्चो\r\n* **ना:** ना + लायक = नालायक\r\n* **परि:** परि + कल्पना = परिकल्पना\r\n* **सम्:** सम् + भावना = सम्भावना\r\n* **कु:** कु + कर्म = कुकर्म\r\n* **सु:** सु + रक्षा = सुरक्षा\r\n\r\n### २. दिइएका प्रत्यय लगाई एक-एकओटा शब्द निर्माण गर्नुहोस् :\r\n* **अक्कड:** भुल् + अक्कड = भुलक्कड\r\n* **आइ:** पढ् + आइ = पढाइ\r\n* **आली:** लेक + आली = लेकाली\r\n* **इलो:** रस + इलो = रसिलो\r\n* **ले:** गाउँ + ले = गाउँले\r\n* **इक:** समाज + इक = सामाजिक\r\n* **ता:** मानव + ता = मानवता\r\n* **मान्:** शक्ति + मान् = शक्तिमान्\r\n\r\n### ३. दिइएको अनुच्छेद पढी शब्दको सुरु, बिच र अन्तिममा ह्रस्व उकार प्रयोग भएका शब्दको पहिचान गरी टिपोट गर्नुहोस् :\r\n**उत्तर:**\r\n* **सुरुमा ह्रस्व उकार:** बुबा, मुकुन्दपुर, सुब्बा, गुरु, बुलेन्दु, गुन्जमान, गुरुङ, सुख, खुसी।\r\n* **बिचमा ह्रस्व उकार:** आउनुभएको, बाबुराम, आयुर्वेदिक, जमुना, ताप्लेजुङ, घान्द्रुक, गुरुङ।\r\n* **अन्तिममा ह्रस्व उकार:** दाजु, राजु, गहुँ, पृथु, श्यामु, मधु, बुलेन्दु।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## सिर्जना र परियोजना कार्य (Creative and Project Work)\r\n\r\n### १. \'नेपालको प्राकृतिक विविधता\' शीर्षकमा वस्तुपरक निबन्ध लेख्नुहोस्।\r\n**नेपालको प्राकृतिक विविधता**\r\nविश्वको मानचित्रमा भौगोलिक हिसाबले सानो देखिए पनि नेपाल प्रकृति, कला, संस्कृति र भूगोलको विविधताले भरिपूर्ण एक अनुपम देश हो। बारै महिना हिउँले ढाकिने उच्च हिमशृङ्खला, हरियालीले भरिएका पहाड र अन्नको भण्डार मानिने तराई-मधेसले नेपालको भू-धरातललाई विशिष्ट बनाएको छ। समुद्र सतहबाट करिब ६० मिटरको होचो भू-भागदेखि विश्वको सर्वोच्च शिखर सगरमाथा (८,८४८.८६ मिटर) सम्मको उचाइले यहाँको प्राकृतिक विविधतालाई अझ बढाएको छ।\r\n\r\nहिमालसँग अथाह सौन्दर्य र जलस्रोत छ, पहाडसँग जडीबुटी, खनिज र स्वस्थ पर्यावरण छ भने तराई मधेसमा अन्नको भण्डार छ। यही विविधताका कारण नेपाल जैविक विविधतामा पनि धनी छ। नेपाल जलसम्पदामा विश्वकै अग्रणी देशहरूमा पर्छ। यहाँ कोसी, गण्डकी, कर्णाली जस्ता ठुला नदीहरू र रारा, फेवा, तिलिचो जस्ता सुन्दर तालतलैयाहरू छन्। यी जलसम्पदाले विद्युत् उत्पादन, सिँचाइ र पर्यटन व्यवसाय (र्याफ्टिङ, जलविहार) मा ठुलो सहयोग पुऱ्याएको छ।\r\n\r\nयहाँका वनजङ्गलमा यार्सागुम्बा, पाँचऔँले, जटामसी जस्ता बहुमूल्य जडीबुटीहरू पाइन्छन्, जसलाई विदेशमा निर्यात गरी मनग्य आम्दानी गर्न सकिन्छ। नेपाल प्राकृतिक विविधताले भरिपूर्ण देश हो, जसले सम्भावनाका अनन्त ढोकाहरू खोलेको छ। हामीले यी प्राकृतिक सम्पदाको सही पहिचान र सदुपयोग गरेर देशलाई विकसित र समृद्ध बनाउनुपर्छ।', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-16 03:05:11'),
(77, 11212, '# पाब्लो पिकासो - कक्षा १० (पूर्ण विस्तृत गाइड)\r\n\r\n\"पाब्लो पिकासो\" जीवनीले विद्यार्थीहरूलाई बीसौं शताब्दीका सबैभन्दा महान् र प्रभावशाली कलाकारहरू मध्ये एकको जीवन, कला र विरासतसँग परिचित गराउँछ। यो विस्तृत गाइडले जीवनीका हरेक पक्ष, मुख्य विषयवस्तु, विश्लेषण र अभ्यासका सबै प्रश्नहरूको गहन र पूर्ण उत्तरहरू समावेश गर्दछ, जसले विद्यार्थीहरूलाई पिकासोको कलाको महत्त्व बुझ्न र परीक्षामा उत्कृष्टता हासिल गर्न मद्दत गर्नेछ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## शब्दभण्डार (Vocabulary)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका अर्थसँग मिल्ने शब्द जीवनीबाट खोजेर लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n* **सय वर्षको समय वा पिरियड:** शताब्दी\r\n* **मूर्त नभएको:** अमूर्त\r\n* **अत्यन्त धेरै मोल पर्ने:** अनमोल\r\n* **कहिल्यै नमर्ने:** अमर\r\n* **कलापूर्ण ढङ्गले सजाइएको:** कलात्मक\r\n* **प्राचीन महत्त्वका वस्तु राखिने ठाउँ:** सङ्ग्रहालय\r\n\r\n### २. जीवनीका आधारमा शब्दको अर्थ लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n* **अद्भुत:** आश्चर्य, अनौठो कुरा\r\n* **शैशवावस्था:** शिशु अवस्था\r\n* **पूर्णकालीन:** पूरा समयका लागि हुने\r\n* **बहुमुखी:** विभिन्न विषयको विशेषता वा ज्ञान भएको\r\n* **सिर्जना:** रचना\r\n* **आकृति:** कुनै व्यक्ति वा वस्तुको स्वरुप\r\n* **मनस्थिति:** मनको स्थिति, विचार\r\n* **विसङ्गत:** नमिलेको, नसुहाउँदो\r\n* **कृति:** कुनै पुस्तक, चित्र आदिको रचना\r\n\r\n### ३. दिइएको अनुच्छेदबाट आगन्तुक शब्द पहिचान गरी लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n**उत्तर:** आगन्तुक शब्दहरू: किताब, कापी, कलम, फोन, माइक्रोबस, डम्फु, समयबजी, योमरी, बारा, थर्मस, रक गार्डेन, क्यामेरा, कैद, नास्ता।\r\n\r\n### ४. जीवनीबाट पाँचओटा आगन्तुक शब्द टिपी भिन्न तरिकाले वाक्यमा प्रयोग गर्नुहोस् :\r\n* **जादु (फारसी):** मलाई **जादु** हेर्न मन पर्छ।\r\n* **नसा (अरबी):** रक्सीको **नसा** लागेपछि छुट्न कठिन हुन्छ।\r\n* **पिरियड (अङ्ग्रेजी):** हाम्रो विद्यालयमा पहिलो **पिरियड**मा नेपाली विषयको पढाइ हुन्छ।\r\n* **तनाव (हिन्दी):** परीक्षा नजिकिँदै जाँदा विद्यार्थीहरूले अनावश्यक **तनाव** लिनुहुँदैन।\r\n* **क्यानभास (अङ्ग्रेजी):** चित्रकारले **क्यानभास**मा सुन्दर प्रकृतिको चित्र कोरेका छन्।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## बोध र अभिव्यक्ति (Comprehension and Expression)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका घटना कुन-कुन मितिमा भएका हुन्, लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n* **स्पेनको सामान्य मध्यमवर्गीय परिवारमा पिकासोको जन्म हुनु:** सन् १८८१ अक्टोबर २५\r\n* **पिकासोको परिवार ला कोरुनामा बसाइँ सर्नु:** सन् १८९२\r\n* **पिकासोले आफ्ना चित्र प्रदर्शन गर्न र बेच्न थाल्नु:** सन् १८९५\r\n* **अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय लेनिन पुरस्कारबाट पिकासो सम्मानित हुनु:** सन् १९५० र सन् १९६१\r\n* **पिकासोको \'वुमन अफ अल्जियर्स\' ले विश्व कीर्तिमान राख्नु:** सन् १९५५\r\n* **पिकासोको भौतिक शरीरको अवसान हुनु:** सन् १९७३ अप्रिल ८\r\n\r\n### २. दिइएका प्रश्नको उत्तर लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n**(क) पिकासोको बाल्यकाल कस्तो परिवेशमा बित्यो?**\r\n**उत्तर:** पाब्लो पिकासोको जन्म सन् १८८१ अक्टोबर २५ मा स्पेनको मलागामा एक सामान्य मध्यमवर्गीय परिवारमा भएको थियो। उनका बुबा, जोसो रुइज, एक स्थानीय विद्यालयमा कलाका कुशल शिक्षक थिए। यसकारण, पिकासोले कलात्मक र प्रेरणादायी पारिवारिक परिवेश पाए। उनले बाल्यकालमै आफ्ना बुबाले सिर्जना गरेका सुन्दर कलाहरू बालसुलभ आँखाले देखे र त्यसैबाट उनीभित्रको जन्मजात कलाकारिताले मौलाउने अवसर पायो। उनले चित्रकलाको प्रारम्भिक तालिम घरबाटै पाए र बाल्यकालमा विभिन्न प्रकारका आकृतिहरू बनाएर आफ्ना साथीहरूलाई चकित पार्थे। यसरी उनको बाल्यकाल कला र सिर्जनाका लागि सहज र अनुकूल परिवेशमा बितेको थियो।\r\n\r\n**(ख) पिकासोले चित्रमा कुन-कुन पक्ष समेटेका छन्?**\r\n**उत्तर:** पिकासोले आफ्ना चित्रहरूमा मानव जीवनका अत्यन्तै विविध र गहिरा पक्षहरूलाई समेटेका छन्। प्रारम्भमा उनले यथार्थवादी शैलीमा आफ्नो परिवारका चित्रहरू र पोट्रेटहरू बनाए। पछि उनको कला \'ब्लु पिरियड\'मा प्रवेश गर्‍यो, जहाँ उनले निलो र हरियो रङको प्रयोग गरी समाजका गरिब, बहिष्कृत, दृष्टिविहीन र दुःखी मानिसहरूको एक्लोपन र पीडालाई मार्मिक रूपमा प्रस्तुत गरे। उनका चित्रहरूमा गरिबीले आक्रान्त महिला र दुधे बालकसँगका आमाका चित्रले प्राथमिकता पाए। उनले महिलाका प्रेमिल चित्रहरू पनि बनाए। कलामा \'घनवाद\'को सुरुवात गरेर उनले वस्तुलाई विभिन्न कोणबाट एकैसाथ देखाउने क्रान्तिकारी शैली अपनाए। उनको विश्वप्रसिद्ध चित्र \'द गुएर्निका\'ले युद्धको अमानवीयता र त्रासदीलाई सशक्त रूपमा प्रस्तुत गरेको छ, जुन हालसम्मकै सबैभन्दा महान् युद्धविरोधी चित्र मानिन्छ। यसरी उनले व्यक्तिगत भावनादेखि सामाजिक यथार्थ र राजनीतिक विद्रोहसम्मका विषयलाई आफ्ना चित्रमा समेटेका छन्।\r\n\r\n**(ग) पिकासोले आफ्नो जीवनको लक्ष्य पूरा गर्न कस्ता सङ्घर्ष गर्नुपरेको थियो?**\r\n**उत्तर:** पिकासोले आफ्नो जीवनको लक्ष्य पूरा गर्न अनेकौँ सङ्घर्षहरूको सामना गर्नुपरेको थियो। मध्यमवर्गीय परिवारमा जन्मेकाले जीवनको पूर्वार्धमा उनले आर्थिक तथा पारिवारिक समस्या भोगे। सन् १८९५ मा उनकी सात वर्षकी बहिनी कोन्चियको मृत्यु भयो, जुन उनको जीवनको एक कहालीलाग्दो घटना बन्यो। यी पारिवारिक र आर्थिक सङ्कटहरूले उनमा गहिरो मानसिक तनाव सिर्जना गर्‍यो। उच्च शिक्षाका लागि म्याड्रिड एकेडेमी गए पनि त्यहाँको वातावरणबाट विरक्तिएर उनले औपचारिक पढाइ छोडे र पूर्णकालीन कलाकारितामा समर्पित भए। प्रारम्भिक चरणमा उनका चित्रहरू मन पराउने मानिस कम थिए र बिक्री पनि हुँदैनथे। कतिपय अवस्थामा उनका चित्रहरूमाथि प्रतिबन्ध समेत लगाइएको थियो। उनको वैवाहिक र पारिवारिक जीवन पनि सधैँ सहज रहेन। यसरी उनले आर्थिक, पारिवारिक र मानसिक समस्याहरूसँग जुध्दै आफ्नो लक्ष्य पूरा गर्न कठोर सङ्घर्ष गर्नुपरेको थियो।\r\n\r\n**(घ) पिकासोको जीवनबाट पाइने जीवनोपयोगी सन्देश उल्लेख गर्नुहोस्।**\r\n**उत्तर:** पाब्लो पिकासोको जीवनीबाट निम्न जीवनोपयोगी सन्देशहरू पाउन सकिन्छ:\r\n* हरेक बालबालिकामा विशिष्ट सिर्जना शक्ति र प्रतिभा हुन्छ; उचित अवसर र लगनशीलता पाएमा उनीहरूले जीवनलाई सार्थक बनाउन सक्छन्।\r\n* अभिभावकले आफ्ना सन्तानको क्षमता पहिचान गरी त्यसलाई प्रस्फुटन हुनका लागि उपयुक्त वातावरण तयार पार्नुपर्छ।\r\n* आफ्नो रुचिको क्षेत्रमा निरन्तर साधना र लगनशीलताले नै सफलता हासिल गर्न सकिन्छ।\r\n* सादा जीवन र उच्च विचार राख्नुपर्छ; भौतिक सम्पन्नता भएर पनि साधारण जीवन जिउन सकिन्छ।\r\n* जीवनमा आउने सानातिना बाधा र अवरोधहरूसँग हार मान्नुहुँदैन।\r\n* हतियारको शक्तिभन्दा कलम र कुचीको शक्ति धेरै शक्तिशाली र दिगो हुन्छ।\r\n\r\n### ३. व्याख्या गर्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n**(क) हरेक बालबालिकामा विशिष्ट सिर्जना शक्ति र प्रतिभा हुन्छ, उचित अवसर र लगनशीलता भए ऊ एउटा कलाकार बन्न सक्छ, जीवनलाई सार्थक बनाउन सक्छ र संसारलाई चहकिलो ज्योति छर्न सक्छ।**\r\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:** यो गहन र प्रेरणादायी वाक्यांश पाब्लो पिकासोको जीवनीबाट लिइएको हो। यसले सफलताका लागि आवश्यक तीन तत्वहरू—जन्मजात प्रतिभा, उपयुक्त अवसर र निरन्तर लगनशीलता—बिचको सम्बन्धलाई उजागर गर्दछ। पिकासोले आफ्नी आमाको प्रेरक भनाइलाई स्मरण गर्दै आफू कसरी सफल कलाकार बने भन्ने सन्दर्भमा यो विचार आएको हो।\r\n\r\n**विस्तृत व्याख्या:** यस भनाइको मूल आशय हो कि हरेक बालबालिका सम्भावनाको खानी हो। उनीहरूभित्र कुनै न कुनै रूपमा विशिष्ट सिर्जनात्मक शक्ति र प्रतिभा लुकेको हुन्छ। तर, त्यो प्रतिभा आफैँ प्रस्फुटित हुँदैन। त्यसका लागि दुई कुरा अनिवार्य हुन्छन्: **उचित अवसर** र **लगनशीलता**।\r\n\r\nपिकासोको जीवन यसको उत्कृष्ट उदाहरण हो। उनका बुबा एक कलाकार भएकोले उनले घरमै कलात्मक वातावरण पाए, जुन उनका लागि **उचित अवसर** थियो। उनकी आमाले उनलाई सधैँ प्रेरित गरिरहिन्। उनले यो अवसरको पूर्ण सदुपयोग गरे र आफ्नो काममा निरन्तर **लगनशील** भए। यही लगनशीलता र अवसरको सदुपयोगले गर्दा उनको जन्मजात प्रतिभाले चम्कने मौका पायो। उनी एक महान् कलाकार बने, आफ्नो जीवनलाई सार्थक बनाए र आफ्नो कलामार्फत संसारमा परिवर्तन र चेतनाको ज्योति फैलाउन सफल भए। यसरी, यो वाक्यांशले हामीलाई के सिकाउँछ भने, यदि बालबालिकाको क्षमतालाई पहिचान गरी सही अवसर र प्रेरणा दिइयो भने उनीहरूले पनि पिकासोले जस्तै आफ्नो जीवन र संसारलाई उज्यालो बनाउन सक्छन्।\r\n\r\n**(ख) बन्दुकभन्दा कलम र कुची बलियो हुन्छ।**\r\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:** यो शक्तिशाली वाक्यांश \'पाब्लो पिकासो\' जीवनी पाठबाट लिइएको हो। यसले भौतिक शक्ति (बन्दुक) र बौद्धिक तथा सिर्जनात्मक शक्ति (कलम र कुची) बिचको भिन्नता र श्रेष्ठतालाई प्रस्ट्याउँछ। पिकासोले आफ्नो कलामार्फत युद्ध र दमनको विरोध गरेको सन्दर्भमा यो वाक्यांश आएको हो।\r\n\r\n**विस्तृत व्याख्या:** \"बन्दुक\" हिंसा, विनाश र भौतिक शक्तिको प्रतीक हो, जसले मानिसमा डर र त्रास पैदा गर्छ तर मन र विचारलाई परिवर्तन गर्न सक्दैन। यसको प्रभाव क्षणिक हुन्छ। अर्कोतर्फ, \"कलम र कुची\" विचार, सिर्जना, चेतना र मानवताको प्रतीक हो। यसले मानिसको मानसिकता, हृदय र विचारमा गहिरो र दिगो परिवर्तन ल्याउन सक्छ।\r\n\r\nपरिवर्तनका लागि हतियारसहितको युद्ध मात्र आवश्यक हुँदैन; कला र साहित्यको बलबाट पनि ठुला क्रान्तिहरू सम्भव छन्। पिकासोले आफ्नो कलामार्फत शोषित, पीडित र सीमान्तकृत मानिसहरूका आवाजलाई बुलन्द गरे। उनको प्रसिद्ध चित्र \'द गुएर्निका\' युद्धको क्रूरता विरुद्धको एक शक्तिशाली अभिव्यक्ति हो। उनको कलाको शक्ति यति धेरै थियो कि नाजीहरूले समेत उनका चित्रदेखि डराएर जर्मनीमाथि प्रतिबन्ध लगाएका थिए। बन्दुकले धनजनको क्षति गर्छ र अशान्ति निम्त्याउँछ, तर कलम र कुचीले मानिसको मन जितेर शान्तिपूर्ण तरिकाले क्रान्ति सफल बनाउँछ। यसरी, यो वाक्यांशले के स्पष्ट पार्छ भने, भौतिक शक्तिभन्दा विचार र सिर्जनाको शक्ति धेरै गुणा बलियो र स्थायी हुन्छ।\r\n\r\n### ४. पाब्लो पिकासोले कलाकारिताको क्षेत्रमा पुऱ्याएका योगदानको चर्चा गर्नुहोस्।\r\n**उत्तर:** बीसौं शताब्दीका सबैभन्दा महान् र प्रभावशाली कलाकार पाब्लो पिकासोको कलाकारिताको क्षेत्रमा योगदान अविस्मरणीय र बहुआयामिक छ।\r\n\r\n**कलामा नयाँ वादको सुरुवात:** पिकासोको सबैभन्दा महत्त्वपूर्ण योगदान \'घनवाद\' (Cubism) को सुरुवात गर्नु हो। उनले वस्तुहरूलाई परम्परागत एउटै दृष्टिकोणबाट नहेरी विभिन्न कोणबाट एकैसाथ टुक्र्याएर देखाउने यो शैलीले विश्वकलामा क्रान्ति ल्यायो। यसले कलालाई हेर्ने र बुझ्ने दृष्टिकोणमा नै परिवर्तन ल्याइदियो।\r\n\r\n**विषयवस्तुको विविधता:** उनका कलाकृतिहरू विषयवस्तुको विविधताले भरिपूर्ण छन्। उनले आफ्नो जीवनका विभिन्न कालखण्ड (\'ब्लु पिरियड\', \'रोज पिरियड\') मा फरक-फरक विषयवस्तुलाई उठाए। \'ब्लु पिरियड\'मा उनले समाजका गरिब, दुःखी, बहिष्कृत र सीमान्तकृत मानिसहरूको पीडा र एक्लोपनलाई आफ्ना चित्रमा उतारे। \'रोज पिरियड\'मा उनले अलि आशावादी र प्रेमिल विषयवस्तुहरूलाई स्थान दिए।\r\n\r\n**युद्धविरोधी कला:** उनको चित्र \'द गुएर्निका\' लाई हालसम्मकै सबैभन्दा महान् युद्धविरोधी चित्र मानिन्छ। यस चित्रमार्फत उनले युद्धको त्रासदी र अमानवीयतालाई सशक्त रूपमा प्रस्तुत गरेका छन्। यसले कलालाई सामाजिक र राजनीतिक अभिव्यक्तिको एक शक्तिशाली माध्यमको रूपमा स्थापित गर्‍यो।\r\n\r\n**विशाल कला सिर्जना:** पिकासोले आफ्नो जीवनकालमा १३,५०० चित्र, १,२२८ मूर्तिकला, २,८८० सेरामिक कला, र लगभग १२,००० रेखाचित्रहरू सिर्जना गरे। यो विशाल सिर्जनाले उनलाई इतिहासकै सबैभन्दा prolific (प्रचुर सिर्जना गर्ने) कलाकारहरू मध्ये एक बनाउँछ।\r\n\r\n**विश्व कीर्तिमान:** उनका कलाकृतिहरू आज पनि संसारकै सबैभन्दा महँगा मानिन्छन्। सन् १९५५ मा बनाएको उनको तेल चित्र \'वुमन अफ अल्जियर्स\' ले विश्व कीर्तिमान कायम गरेको थियो।\r\n\r\n**निष्कर्ष:** यसरी, पिकासोले नयाँ कला शैलीको आविष्कार, विषयवस्तुको विविधता, कलामार्फत सामाजिक activitism, र विशाल कला सिर्जनामार्फत विश्व कलाको इतिहासमा आफ्नो नाम अजर र अमर बनाएका छन्।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## भाषिक संरचना र वर्णविन्यास (Linguistic Structure and Spelling)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएको मुगु र पाल्पाको फोनमा भएको कुराकानीलाई अप्रत्यक्ष कथनमा परिवर्तन गर्नुहोस् :\r\n**उत्तर:**\r\n* मुगुले पाल्पालाई सन्चै हुनुहुन्छ भनेर सोध्यो।\r\n* पाल्पाले आफू सन्चै रहेको र मुगुलाई कस्तो छ भनेर सोध्यो।\r\n* मुगुले पनि आफू सन्चै रहेको बताउँदै पाल्पालाई अहिले के गर्दै हुनुहुन्छ भनेर सोध्यो।\r\n* पाल्पाले पाल्पाली ढाका बुन्दै गरेको बताउँदै मुगुलाई के गर्दै हुनुहुन्छ भनेर सोध्यो।\r\n* मुगुले राडीपाखी बुन्दै गरेको बतायो।\r\n* पाल्पाले मुगुका राडीपाखी राम्रा होलान् है भन्यो।\r\n* मुगुले पनि राम्रा रहेको र रारा घुम्न आई राडीपाखी लिएर जान भन्यो।\r\n* पाल्पाले आफू ढाकाका कपडा, ढाकाको टोपी, पछ्यौरा र चोली लिएर आउने कुरा बतायो।\r\n* मुगुले हुन्छ आउनू भन्दै पाल्पाका ढाकाका कपडा साह्रै मन पर्ने बतायो।\r\n* पाल्पाले हुन्छ भन्दै भेटमा थप कुरा गर्ने र अहिलेलाई फोन राख्ने प्रस्ताव गर्‍यो।\r\n* मुगुले हवस् भन्दै नमस्ते गर्‍यो।\r\n\r\n### २. दिइएको अनुच्छेदलाई शुद्ध गरी पुनर्लेखन गर्नुहोस् :\r\n**अशुद्ध:** ग्यानप्रसाद ज्ञालेन लिएर विग्यान ग्यवालीको पसलमा मटितेल लिन गएछन्। विग्यान सर भने गाडीको एसीमा ज्ञास सकिएर ज्ञारेजमा गएका रहेछन्। ... अग्यानी भइयो भने दुःख पाइन्छ।\r\n\r\n**शुद्ध:** **ज्ञान**प्रसाद **ग्यालेन** लिएर **विज्ञान** **ज्ञवाली**को पसलमा **मट्टितेल** लिन गएछन्। **विज्ञान** सर भने गाडीको एसीमा **ग्यास** सकिएर **ग्यारेज**मा गएका रहेछन्। ... **अज्ञानी** भइयो भने दुःख पाइन्छ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## सिर्जना र परियोजना कार्य (Creative and Project Work)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका बुँदाका आधारमा मोतीराम भट्टको छोटो जीवनी तयार पार्नुहोस् :\r\n**युवाकवि मोतीराम भट्ट**\r\nमोतीराम भट्ट **युवाकवि**का रूपमा नेपाली साहित्यमा परिचित एक अमर नाम हो। उनी कवि, गजलकार, जीवनीकार र समालोचकका रूपमा परिचित एक **बहुमुखी व्यक्तित्व** थिए। उनको जन्म **वि.सं. १९२३ भाद्र** महिनामा काठमाडौँमा पिता दयाराम भट्ट र माता रिपुमर्दिनी देवीको कोखबाट भएको थियो।\r\n\r\nमोतीरामले फारसी, उर्दु, अङ्ग्रेजी, हिन्दी र संस्कृत भाषाको समेत ज्ञान हासिल गरेका थिए। उनको विवाह वि.सं. १९३७ मा भयो। उनलाई नेपाली साहित्यमा **गजल र समस्यापूर्ति कविताका आरम्भकर्ता**का रूपमा चिनिन्छ। उनले नै नेपालमा **छापाखाना स्थापना** गरी पत्रिका प्रकाशनको सुरुवात गरेका थिए। नेपाली साहित्यको श्रीवृद्धिका लागि उनले काठमाडौँ र बनारसमा **मोती मण्डली**को स्थापना गरे। उनको सबैभन्दा महत्त्वपूर्ण योगदान आदिकवि भानुभक्त आचार्यलाई खोजेर उनको **रामायणको बालकाण्ड प्रकाशन** गर्नु थियो।\r\n\r\nनेपाली साहित्यको उन्नयनमा आफूलाई समर्पित गरेका यी महान् साधकको **वि.सं. १९५३ मा ३० वर्षकै कलिलो उमेरमा देहावसान** भयो। छोटो जीवन बाँचे पनि नेपाली साहित्यमा उनले पुऱ्याएको अतुलनीय योगदानका कारण उनको नाम सधैँ अमर रहनेछ।', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-16 03:05:11');
INSERT INTO `course_notes_content` (`id`, `topic_id`, `content`, `markdown_format`, `created_at`, `updated_at`) VALUES
(78, 11213, '# पख्नोस् - कक्षा १० (पूर्ण विस्तृत गाइड)\r\n\r\n\"पख्नोस्\" नेपाली हास्यव्यङ्ग्य निबन्ध साहित्यका सर्वोच्च प्रतिभा भैरव अर्यालद्वारा लिखित एक प्रसिद्ध निबन्ध हो। सामाजिक विषयवस्तुमा आधारित यस निबन्धमा मानिसको पर्खने र अनावश्यक पर्खाउने प्रवृत्तिप्रति चोटिलो व्यङ्ग्य गरिएको छ। यो विस्तृत गाइडले परीक्षाको तयारीका लागि सबै प्रश्नहरूको गहन र पूर्ण उत्तरहरू समावेश गर्दछ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## शब्दभण्डार (Vocabulary)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका अनुकरणात्मक शब्द र कार्यबिच जोडा मिलाउनुहोस् :\r\n\r\n| **शब्द** | **कार्य** |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| ख्वाङख्वाङ | खोक्नु |\r\n| गजक्क | पर्नु |\r\n| ङिच्च | हाँस्नु |\r\n| लस्याङलुसुङ | गर्नु |\r\n| जम्स्याङजुम्सुङ | हुनु |\r\n\r\n### २. निबन्धबाट पारिभाषिक शब्द खोजी वाक्यमा प्रयोग गर्नुहोस् :\r\n* **सम्पादक:** मैले कान्तिपुर दैनिकको **सम्पादक**लाई चिठी लेख्छु।\r\n* **जमिनदार:** बुबा **जमिनदार** भएपछि छोरोलाई सम्पत्तिको चिन्ता हुँदैन।\r\n* **शिक्षित:** **शिक्षित** व्यक्ति भए सभ्य समाज बन्छ।\r\n* **लेख:** मेरो मामाले समसामयिक **लेख** लेख्नुहुन्छ।\r\n* **मनिटर:** कम्प्युटरको काम **मनिटर**मा डिस्प्ले हुन्छ।\r\n\r\n### ३. शिक्षा र वाणिज्य क्षेत्रका पारिभाषिक शब्दको अर्थ लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n**शिक्षा:**\r\n* **पाठ्यक्रम:** विद्यार्थीलाई सिकाउन बनाइएको विषयहरूको योजना।\r\n* **मूल्याङ्कन:** परीक्षार्थीहरूको विशेषता, स्तर आदि निर्धारण गर्ने काम।\r\n* **पुनर्बल:** काममा अझ सक्षम बनाउने अतिरिक्त सहयोग।\r\n* **पुस्तकालय:** पढ्नका लागि पुस्तकहरू राखिएको घर।\r\n* **शिक्षालय:** विद्यालय, पाठशाला।\r\n\r\n**वाणिज्य:**\r\n* **वासलात:** कुनै सङ्घसंस्थाको वर्षभरिको आम्दानी र खर्चको विवरण।\r\n* **भौचर:** बिक्री कारोबारमा नगद बुझाएको प्रमाणका रूपमा दिइने रसिद।\r\n* **फर्स्यौट:** लेनदेन हिसाब चुक्ता गर्ने काम।\r\n* **आयव्यय:** आम्दानी र खर्च।\r\n* **बेरुजु:** आर्थिक कारोबार जाँच्दा नमिलेको हिसाब।\r\n* **बजेट:** भविष्यमा हुने खर्च र आम्दानीको अनुमानित विवरण।\r\n* **निक्षेप:** बैङ्कको खातामा जम्मा गरिने रकम।\r\n\r\n### ४. निबन्धमा व्यङ्ग्य गर्ने क्रममा आएका टुक्कालाई अर्थ खुल्ने गरी वाक्यमा प्रयोग गर्नुहोस् :\r\n* **कन्सिरी तात्नु:** बिनसित्तिमा दोष लगाएपछि मेरो त **कन्सिरी तात्छ**।\r\n* **आगलागी हुनु:** तातोपानीले **आगलागी हुँदैन**।\r\n* **पानीमरुवा हुनु:** जायज कुरा गर्न पनि **पानीमरुवा हुनु** त भएन नि।\r\n* **जङ चल्नु:** **जङ चल्यो** भने एकैपटकमा म पाँच पिलेट मःमः खाइदिन्छु।\r\n* **दाउ हेर्नु:** ट्राफिक प्रहरी पनि घुम्तीमा **दाउ हेरेर** बस्छन्।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## बोध र अभिव्यक्ति (Comprehension and Expression)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका प्रश्नको उत्तर लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n**(क) \'पख्नोस्\' निबन्धको विषयवस्तुमाथि प्रकाश पार्नुहोस्।**\r\n**उत्तर:** \'पख्नोस्\' निबन्ध सामाजिक विषयवस्तुमा आधारित आत्मपरक निबन्ध हो। सामाजिक विसङ्गतिहरूमाथि शब्दवाण प्रहार गर्न सिपालु भैरव अर्यालले यस निबन्धमा मानवीय कमजोरीका रूपमा रहेको पर्खने र पर्खाउने विकृतिका विरुद्धमा व्यङ्ग्य प्रहार गरेका छन्। कोही पर्खन चाहँदैन तर सबै पर्खिरहेका छन्, पर्खाइरहेका छन् भन्ने कुरा निबन्धमा गरिएको छ। हरेक क्षेत्रमा पर्खने र पर्खाउने विकृति रहेको विषयवस्तु उल्लेख गर्दै निबन्धमा शिक्षितहरूमा झनै पर्खाउने प्रवृत्ति बढी रहेको विषयवस्तुको चर्चा गरिएको छ। यसरी \'पख्नोस्\' प्रवृत्ति व्यापक रहेको र यो प्रवृत्ति उन्नतिको बाधक भएको विषयवस्तु निबन्धमा चर्चा गरिएको छ।\r\n\r\n**(ख) \'सत्य, समता र शान्ति पख्दै आएको मानिस झन् विषमताको विषले बौलाहिरहेछ, अशान्त भइरहेछ।\' भन्नुको तात्पर्य के हो ?**\r\n**उत्तर:** यस भनाइको तात्पर्य हो कि मानिसको चाहना र वास्तविकताबीच ठुलो अन्तर छ। सबै मानिसको चाहना सत्य, समता र शान्ति हो, जसका लागि मानिसले युगौँदेखि पर्खँदै आएको छ। तर, जतिसुकै पर्खे पनि समताको साटो विषमता फैलिरहेको छ, र शान्तिको ठाउँमा अशान्ति छाइरहेको छ। आणविक हतियारमा प्रतिबन्ध लाग्नुपर्नेमा झन् निर्माण गर्ने होडबाजी चलेको छ। विज्ञानले भौतिक रूपमा धेरै उन्नति गरे पनि गाँस र बासजस्ता आधारभूत आवश्यकताका लागि मानिसले पर्खनुपर्ने अवस्था कायमै छ। यसरी, मानिसको चाहना र उसको काम गराइमा अन्तर भएका कारण चाहेको जस्तो आदर्श समाज निर्माण हुन सकेको छैन भन्नु नै प्रस्तुत भनाइको तात्पर्य हो।\r\n\r\n**(ग) निबन्धमा मानिसका कस्ता कमीकमजोरीप्रति व्यङ्ग्य गरिएको छ ?**\r\n**उत्तर:** यस निबन्धमा मानिसको पर्खने र अनावश्यक रूपमा पर्खाउने प्रवृत्तिप्रति चोटिलो व्यङ्ग्य गरिएको छ। आजका भनाउँदा मानिसहरू आफ्नो दायित्व र जिम्मेवारीप्रति सचेत छैनन्। उनीहरू कामलाई सधैँ कुराले टार्न खोज्छन्। सत्य र अहिंसाका आदर्श कुरा गर्छन्, तर व्यवहारमा असत्यको पक्ष लिँदै हिंसा मच्चाउन उद्यत रहन्छन्। आणविक हतियारमा प्रतिबन्ध लगाउनुपर्ने कुरा गर्छन्, तर त्यसलाई कार्यान्वयन गर्न लस्याङलुसुङ गर्छन्। अरूलाई बिनाकाम झुलाउन वा पर्खाउन पाउँदा आफूलाई महान् ठान्ने जस्ता मानवीय कमीकमजोरीप्रति निबन्धमा तिखो व्यङ्ग्य गरिएको छ।\r\n\r\n**(घ) यस निबन्धबाट कस्तो सन्देश पाउन सकिन्छ ?**\r\n**उत्तर:** भैरव अर्यालद्वारा लिखित \'पख्नोस्\' निबन्धले समयको महत्त्व बुझ्नुपर्छ र पर्खने तथा पर्खाउने जुम्सो प्रवृत्ति हटाउनुपर्छ भन्ने महत्त्वपूर्ण सन्देश दिएको छ। चिल्ला र शिष्ट शब्दहरू प्रयोग गरेर अरूलाई झुलाउने प्रवृत्ति झनै घातक हुन्छ। हामी आफ्नो कर्तव्य र दायित्वप्रति सदा सचेत रहनुपर्छ। अरूलाई झुलाएर आफूलाई महान् सिद्ध गर्ने प्रवृत्ति त्याग्नुपर्छ। हाम्रो विचार र कार्यमा समानता हुनुपर्छ। यो पृथ्वी सबै जीवहरूको साझा घर हो, त्यसैले यहाँ सञ्चालन हुने हरेक गतिविधि सबैको हितमा हुनुपर्छ। हामी सबै इमानदार, कर्तव्यनिष्ठ र विवेकशील बन्नुपर्छ भन्ने सन्देश यस निबन्धबाट पाउन सकिन्छ।\r\n\r\n### २. व्याख्या गर्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n**(क) सबै पर्खाइको पछिल्तिर मेरा सयौँ सपना पर्खिरहेछन्, इच्छा र आकाङ्क्षा पर्खिरहेछन्।**\r\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:** प्रस्तुत निबन्धांश प्रभावशाली हास्यव्यङ्ग्य निबन्धकार भैरव अर्यालको \'पख्नोस्\' शीर्षकको निबन्धबाट साभार गरिएको हो। पर्खने र पर्खाउने प्रवृत्तिले व्यक्तिको भविष्य कसरी अन्योलपूर्ण र सपनाहरू अधुरै रहन्छन् भन्ने कुरा बुझाउने सन्दर्भमा यो अंश आएको हो।\r\n\r\n**विस्तृत व्याख्या:** मानिसले जीवनमा अनेकौँ सपना, इच्छा र आकाङ्क्षाहरू देखेको हुन्छ। ती सपनाहरूलाई साकार पार्न ऊ कर्मशील बन्नुपर्छ। तर, काम गर्नुको साटो कुराले टार्ने र जताततै पर्खनुपर्ने सामाजिक विकृतिका कारण उसका सपनाहरू पूरा हुन सकेका छैनन्। निबन्धकारले आफूले थाहा पाएदेखि हरेक क्षेत्रमा पर्खनुपरेको गुनासो व्यक्त गर्दछन्। जागिर पाउने आश्वासनदेखि तलब पाउने दिनसम्म, र उपचारकदेखि लुगा सिउने सूचीकारसम्म सबैलाई पर्खनुपरेको छ।\r\n\r\nयो निरन्तरको पर्खाइले मानिसलाई जुम्सो र निष्क्रिय बनाएको छ। ऊ केही गरूँ, केही बनूँ भन्ने सोचले अघि बढ्छ, तर हरेक मोडमा \'पख्नोस्\' भन्ने शब्दले उसको गतिलाई रोकिदिन्छ। समयमा काम नगर्ने यही प्रवृत्तिले गर्दा व्यक्तिका सयौँ सपना, इच्छा र आकाङ्क्षाहरू केवल पर्खाइमै सीमित रहन पुगेका छन्। विशेषगरी, शिक्षित मानिसहरूले नै सभ्य र शिष्ट शब्द प्रयोग गरेर अरूलाई झुलाउने काम गरिरहेका छन्, जसले यो समस्यालाई झनै विकराल बनाएको छ। यसरी, यो निबन्धांशले पर्खाउने विकृतिले कसरी व्यक्तिको सिर्जनात्मकता र प्रगतिलाई मार्दछ भन्ने यथार्थलाई मार्मिक रूपमा प्रस्तुत गरेको छ।\r\n\r\n**(ख) हामी दुवै चाहन्छौँ एउटा त्यस्तो दुनियाँ सिर्जना गरौँ जहाँ कसैले कसैलाई कुराले मात्र टार्न नसकोस् !**\r\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:** यो निबन्धांश नेपाली हास्यव्यङ्ग्य निबन्धका सुप्रसिद्ध स्रष्टा भैरव अर्यालको \'पख्नोस्\' निबन्धबाट उद्धृत गरिएको हो। पर्खने र पर्खाउने दुवै परम्पराको अन्त्य भई समयमै काम हुने आदर्श समाजको चाहना व्यक्त गर्ने क्रममा यो अंश आएको हो।\r\n\r\n**विस्तृत व्याख्या:** मानिसमा अनेक कमजोरी छन्, जसमध्ये काम गर्नेभन्दा कुराले टारेर अरूलाई झुलाइरहने प्रवृत्ति एक प्रमुख हो। यसैका कारण मानिसले समयलाई अर्थहीन रूपमा बिताइरहेको छ र उसको सिर्जना शक्ति हराउँदै गएको छ। मानिस जुम्राजस्तै जुम्सो बनेको छ र हरेक काममा लस्याङलुसुङ पारा देखाउँछ। शिक्षित व्यक्तिहरूमा त यस्तो प्रवृत्ति झनै बढी देखिन्छ।\r\n\r\nयस्तो अवस्थामा, निबन्धकारले पाठक र आफूबीच एक साझा चाहना व्यक्त गर्छन्—एउटा यस्तो दुनियाँको सिर्जना, जहाँ कसैले कसैलाई चिल्ला कुराले मात्र टार्न नसकोस्। यो एउटा यस्तो आदर्श समाजको परिकल्पना हो, जहाँ कामको सम्मान हुन्छ, समयको महत्त्व हुन्छ र मानिसहरू आफ्नो जिम्मेवारीप्रति इमानदार हुन्छन्। यो दुनियाँमा सबैले उन्नति र प्रगति नै चाहन्छन्। तसर्थ, जागरुकताका साथ काम सम्पन्न गरी अगाडि बढ्ने वातावरण सिर्जना गर्नुपर्छ। यस्तो ढिलासुस्ती र पर्खाउने प्रवृत्तिको अन्त्य गर्नु नै सबैको हितमा हुन्छ। यसरी, निबन्धकारले सरल भाषाशैलीमार्फत सबैको चाहना ढिलासुस्ती हटाउने भए पनि पर्खनुपर्ने बाध्यता कायमै रहेको यथार्थलाई अभिव्यक्त गरेका छन्।\r\n\r\n### ३. \'पख्नोस्\' निबन्धमा हाम्रो समाजका कस्ता पक्षमाथि व्यङ्ग्य गरिएको छ, समीक्षा गर्नुहोस्।\r\n**उत्तर:** भैरव अर्यालद्वारा लिखित \'पख्नोस्\' निबन्धले हाम्रो समाजमा व्याप्त \'पर्खने र पर्खाउने\' प्रवृत्तिमाथि गहिरो र तिखो व्यङ्ग्य गरेको छ।\r\n**कामभन्दा कुरालाई प्राथमिकता दिने प्रवृत्ति:** निबन्धमा मानिसहरू आफ्नो जिम्मेवारी इमानदारीसाथ पूरा गर्नुको सट्टा कुराले टारेर आफूलाई महान् ठान्ने प्रवृत्तिमाथि व्यङ्ग्य गरिएको छ। मानौं, मानिसहरूबीच एकअर्कालाई झुलाउने प्रतिस्पर्धा नै चलिरहेको छ।\r\n**शिक्षित वर्गको आडम्बर:** सामान्य मानिसभन्दा शिक्षित वर्गमा यो प्रवृत्ति झनै बढी देखिन्छ। उनीहरू सभ्य र चिल्ला शब्दहरूको प्रयोग गरेर अरूलाई पर्खाउन झनै निपुण छन्, जसले गर्दा उनीहरूको आडम्बर र खोक्रोपनमाथि व्यङ्ग्य गरिएको छ।\r\n**निष्क्रियता र जुम्सोपन:** पर्खँदा-पर्खँदै मानिसको काम गर्ने इच्छाशक्ति र जोस-जाँगर हराएको छ, जसले गर्दा ऊ जुम्राजस्तै जुम्सो र हरेक काममा लम्स्याङलुसुङ गर्ने भएको छ। यो सामाजिक निष्क्रियतामाथि निबन्धले प्रहार गरेको छ।\r\n**विचार र व्यवहारमा भिन्नता:** मानिसहरू सत्य, समता र शान्तिका ठुला-ठुला कुरा गर्छन्, तर व्यवहारमा विषमता र अशान्ति फैलाइरहेका छन्। आणविक हतियारमा प्रतिबन्ध लगाउनुपर्छ भन्ने तर त्यसका लागि कुनै ठोस कदम नचाल्ने पाखण्डीपनमाथि पनि व्यङ्ग्य गरिएको छ।\r\n**पर्खाइको सर्वव्यापकता:** जन्मेदेखि मृत्युसम्म, र सामान्य घरायसी कामदेखि राष्ट्रिय तथा अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय मुद्दाहरूसम्म, पर्खाइ सर्वव्यापी छ। यो पर्खाइ हाम्रो नियति नै बनिसकेको छ, जसले गर्दा मानिसका हजारौँ सपना र आकाङ्क्षाहरू मरिरहेका छन्।\r\n\r\n**निष्कर्ष:** समग्रमा, यो निबन्धले हाम्रो समाजमा रहेको ढिलासुस्ती, आडम्बर, निष्क्रियता, र विचार-व्यवहार बीचको खाडल जस्ता पक्षहरूमाथि चोटिलो व्यङ्ग्य गरेको छ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## भाषिक संरचना र वर्णविन्यास (Linguistic Structure and Spelling)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका वाक्यको वचन, पुरुष, लिङ्ग र आदर भर्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n| **वाक्य** | **वचन** | **पुरुष** | **लिङ्ग** | **आदर** |\r\n| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |\r\n| तैँले पाठ पढिस्। | एकवचन | द्वितीय | स्त्री/पुलिङ्ग | सामान्य |\r\n| ऊ घर जान्छ। | एकवचन | तृतीय | पुलिङ्ग | सामान्य |\r\n| रमा घर जान्छे। | एकवचन | तृतीय | स्त्रीलिङ्ग | सामान्य |\r\n| उहाँ धनकुटा जानुहुन्छ। | एकवचन | तृतीय | स्त्री/पुलिङ्ग | उच्च |\r\n| म खेल खेल्छु। | एकवचन | प्रथम | स्त्री/पुलिङ्ग | - |\r\n| हामीहरू रारा पुग्यौँ। | बहुवचन | प्रथम | स्त्री/पुलिङ्ग | - |\r\n\r\n### २. दिइएको अनुच्छेदका वाक्यको क्रियापद सच्याएर पदसङ्गति मिलाई लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n**अशुद्ध:** कक्षाका साथीहरू वनभोज गएछ। सीता र रीता वनभोज गइन्छ। गीता चाहि गएछ। बुबाले सबैलाई वनभोज जान अनुमति दिएछ। ... आमाले तँ चाँडै आउ र बेलुकी घुम्न जाऔंला भनिछन्।\r\n\r\n**शुद्ध:** कक्षाका साथीहरू वनभोज **गएछन्**। सीता र रीता वनभोज **गएनछन्**। गीता चाहि **गइछ**। बुबाले सबैलाई वनभोज जान अनुमति **दिनुभएछ**। ... आमाले **तिमी** चाँडै आउ र बेलुकी घुम्न जाऔंला **भन्नुभएछ**।\r\n\r\n### ३. दिइएको सङ्केतअनुसार पदसङ्गति मिल्ने क्रियापद भर्नुहोस् :\r\n* **(क) पारस पाण्डे एयरपोर्ट पुगेछन्। (उच्च आदर)**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** पारस पाण्डे एयरपोर्ट **पुग्नुभएछ**।\r\n* **(ख) खटपटानन्द खतिवडा खेततिर झरेछ। (सामान्य आदर)**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** खटपटानन्द खतिवडा खेततिर **झरेछन्**।\r\n* **(ग) ऊ घरतिर हिँडी। (मध्यम आदर)**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** उनी घरतिर **हिँडिन्**।\r\n* **(घ) उनी पाठ पढिछन्। (द्वितीय पुरुष, सामान्य आदर)**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** तैँले पाठ **पढिछस्**।\r\n* **(ङ) भोलि आउने छ। (प्रथम पुरुष, स्त्रीलिङ्ग)**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** म भोलि आउने **छु**।\r\n* **(च) उनी भोलि आउने छन्। (स्त्रीलिङ्ग)**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** उनी भोलि आउने **छिन्**।\r\n\r\n### ४. हलन्त र अजन्तको उपयुक्त प्रयोग गरी दिइएको अनुच्छेद पुनर्लेखन गर्नुहोस् :\r\n**अशुद्ध:** तैंले के गरिस भनेर् मलाई साथीले सोध्यो। मैले गृहकार्य गरेँ भनेपछि उस्ले मलाई भन्यो, अब म पनि गृहकार्य गर्छु। तँ पनि गृहकार्य गर। उमेश, रमेश, श्यामले पनि गृहकार्य सकेछन।\r\n\r\n**शुद्ध:** तैँले के **गरिस्** भनेर मलाई साथीले सोध्यो। मैले गृहकार्य **गरें** भनेपछि **उसले** मलाई भन्यो, अब म पनि गृहकार्य गर्छु। तँ पनि गृहकार्य **गर्**। उमेश, रमेश, श्यामले पनि गृहकार्य **सकेछन्**।', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-16 03:05:11'),
(79, 11201, '# उज्यालो यात्रा - कक्षा १० (पूर्ण विस्तृत गाइड)\r\n\r\n\"उज्यालो यात्रा\" एक प्रेरणादायी कविता हो जसले सामाजिक रूपान्तरण, एकता र उज्ज्वल भविष्यको चाहनालाई सशक्त रूपमा प्रस्तुत गर्दछ। यसले समाजमा व्याप्त अन्धविश्वास, रूढिवादी सोच र विभेदहरूलाई हटाएर समानता र प्रगतिको नयाँ बिहानी ल्याउने अठोट व्यक्त गर्दछ। यो विस्तृत गाइडले परीक्षाको तयारीका लागि सबै प्रश्नहरूको गहन र पूर्ण उत्तरहरू समावेश गर्दछ।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## शब्दभण्डार (Vocabulary)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका शब्द र अर्थबिच जोडा मिलाउनुहोस् :\r\n\r\n| **शब्द** | **अर्थ** |\r\n| :--- | :--- |\r\n| सिर्जना | रचना, बनावट |\r\n| विभेद | भेदभाव, भिन्नता |\r\n| रूढिग्रस्त | पुरानो परम्परामा बाँधिएको |\r\n| कुरीति | नराम्रो चलन, कुसंस्कार |\r\n| अड्चन | बाधा, रोकावट |\r\n| यात्रा | एक ठाउँबाट अर्को ठाउँमा जाने काम |\r\n| गन्तव्य | पुग्नुपर्ने ठाउँ, लक्ष्य |\r\n\r\n### २. दिइएका शब्दलाई वाक्यमा प्रयोग गर्नुहोस् :\r\n* **अन्धविश्वास:** समाजमा रहेको **अन्धविश्वास** नै प्रगतिको सबैभन्दा ठुलो बाधक हो।\r\n* **उन्नति:** देशको **उन्नति**का लागि सबै नागरिक एकजुट हुनुपर्छ।\r\n* **सौन्दर्य:** नेपालको प्राकृतिक **सौन्दर्य** विश्वभरि नै प्रसिद्ध छ।\r\n* **सद्भाव:** हाम्रो देशमा विभिन्न जातजाति र धर्महरूबीच गहिरो **सद्भाव** रहेको छ।\r\n* **सङ्कल्प:** हामी सबैले देशलाई समृद्ध बनाउने **सङ्कल्प** लिनुपर्छ।\r\n* **माला:** कविले सबै नेपालीलाई एकताको **माला**मा गाँस्ने कुरा गरेका छन्।\r\n\r\n### ३. उखान र टुक्कामा के फरक छ, उदाहरणसहित लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n**उखान:** लामो समयदेखि चल्दै आएको, विशेष अर्थ दिने, अनुభవसिद्ध र सारगर्भित भनाइलाई उखान भनिन्छ। यो पूर्ण वाक्य हुन्छ र यसले प्रेरणा वा सन्देश दिन्छ।\r\n* **उदाहरण:** \"अकबरी सुनलाई कसी लाउनु पर्दैन\" र \"जसले मह काढ्छ, उसले हात चाट्छ\"।\r\n\r\n**टुक्का:** कुनै पनि भाषामा विशेष अर्थ दिने शब्द वा शब्दहरूको समूहलाई टुक्का भनिन्छ। यो अपूर्ण वाक्य हुन्छ र यसले लाक्षणिक अर्थ दिन्छ।\r\n* **उदाहरण:** \"कानमा तेल हाल्नु\" (बेवास्ता गर्नु) र \"कम्मर कस्नु\" (तयार हुनु)।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## बोध र अभिव्यक्ति (Comprehension and Expression)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका प्रश्नको उत्तर लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n**(क) कविले कवितामा सामाजिक रूपान्तरणको चाहनालाई कसरी व्यक्त गरेका छन् ?**\r\n**उत्तर:** कविले \"उज्यालो यात्रा\" कवितामा सामाजिक रूपान्तरणको गहिरो चाहना व्यक्त गरेका छन्। उनले समाजमा व्याप्त रूढिग्रस्त सोचाइ, अन्धविश्वास, कुरीति र विभेदहरूलाई जरैदेखि उखेलेर फाल्ने सङ्कल्प गरेका छन्। कविले सबै जातजाति, भाषाभाषी र संस्कृतिलाई एकताको मालामा गाँसेर एउटा सुन्दर र समतामूलक समाजको सिर्जना गर्ने इच्छा राखेका छन्। उनले मानवताको गीत गाउँदै, माया र सद्भावको फूल फुलाउँदै एउटा यस्तो नयाँ संसार बसाल्न चाहेका छन्, जहाँ कुनै पनि प्रकारको अन्याय र असमानता हुनेछैन। यसरी, कविले नकारात्मक पक्षहरूको अन्त्य र सकारात्मक पक्षहरूको निर्माणमार्फत सामाजिक रूपान्तरणको चाहनालाई सशक्त रूपमा व्यक्त गरेका छन्।\r\n\r\n**(ख) \'उज्यालो यात्रा\' मा के-कस्ता बाधा अड्चन आउन सक्छन् भनिएको छ ?**\r\n**उत्तर:** कविताअनुसार \'उज्यालो यात्रा\' अर्थात् सामाजिक रूपान्तरणको यात्रामा अनेकौँ बाधा र अड्चनहरू आउन सक्छन्। समाजमा गहिरोसँग जरो गाडेर बसेका **रूढिग्रस्त सोचाइ** र **अन्धविश्वास** नै सबैभन्दा ठुला बाधाहरू हुन्। मानिसहरूमा रहेको **विभेदकारी भावना**, **कुरीति** र **कुसंस्कारहरू**ले पनि यो यात्रालाई कठिन बनाउँछन्। यी बाधाहरूले मानिसहरूलाई एक हुन दिँदैनन् र प्रगतिको मार्गलाई अवरुद्ध गर्छन्। कवि यी सबै बाधा र अड्चनहरूसित कहिल्यै नझुक्ने र तिनलाई परास्त गरेरै आफ्नो गन्तव्यमा पुग्ने दृढ सङ्कल्प व्यक्त गर्दछन्।\r\n\r\n**(ग) \'उज्यालो यात्रा\' कविताको मुख्य सन्देश के हो ?**\r\n**उत्तर:** \"उज्यालो यात्रा\" कविताको मुख्य सन्देश **एकता, सङ्कल्प र निरन्तरको प्रयासबाट मात्रै सामाजिक रूपान्तरण सम्भव छ** भन्ने हो। कविताले हामीलाई समाजमा व्याप्त अन्धविश्वास, कुरीति, विभेद र असमानता जस्ता नकारात्मक पक्षहरूविरुद्ध एकजुट भएर लड्न प्रेरित गर्दछ। यसले हामीलाई सिकाउँछ कि जस्तोसुकै बाधा र अड्चन आए पनि हामी आफ्नो लक्ष्यबाट विचलित हुनुहुँदैन। माया, सद्भाव र मानवताको जगमा मात्रै एउटा सुन्दर, शान्त र समृद्ध समाजको निर्माण हुन सक्छ। तसर्थ, उज्ज्वल भविष्यको लागि निरन्तर अघि बढिरहनु र कहिल्यै हार नमान्नु नै यस कविताको मूल सन्देश हो।\r\n\r\n### २. व्याख्या गर्नुहोस् :\r\n\r\n**(क) बाधा र अड्चनसित अब कहिल्यै नझुक्ने गरी**\r\n**सिर्जनाको एउटा सुन्दर बगैँचा सजाउनलाई ।**\r\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:** यो कवितांश \"उज्यालो यात्रा\" शीर्षकको कविताबाट साभार गरिएको हो। यसमा कविले सामाजिक रूपान्तरणको कठिन यात्रामा आउने चुनौतीहरूको सामना गर्ने दृढ सङ्कल्प र भविष्यको सुन्दर परिकल्पनालाई व्यक्त गरेका छन्।\r\n\r\n**विस्तृत व्याख्या:** यस अंशमा कविले सामाजिक परिवर्तनको यात्रालाई सहज नभएको स्वीकार गरेका छन्। उनलाई थाहा छ कि यो यात्रामा अनेकौँ \'बाधा र अड्चन\'हरू आउनेछन्, जुन समाजमा व्याप्त रूढिवादी सोच, अन्धविश्वास र कुरीतिहरूका प्रतीक हुन्। तर, कवि यी चुनौतीहरूसँग \'कहिल्यै नझुक्ने\' अठोट व्यक्त गर्छन्। उनको यो सङ्कल्पले एक क्रान्तिकारी र दृढ भावनालाई दर्शाउँछ।\r\n\r\nउनको यो सङ्घर्षको अन्तिम लक्ष्य भनेको \'सिर्जनाको एउटा सुन्दर बगैँचा सजाउनु\' हो। यहाँ \'सुन्दर बगैँचा\' एउटा रूपक हो, जसले विविधतामा एकता भएको, समानता, न्याय र सद्भावले भरिपूर्ण एक आदर्श समाजलाई सङ्केत गर्दछ। जसरी बगैँचामा विभिन्न रङ र प्रकारका फूलहरू मिलेर एउटा सुन्दर दृश्य सिर्जना गर्छन्, त्यसरी नै कविले पनि विभिन्न जातजाति र संस्कृतिहरू मिलेर बनेको एक सामञ्जस्यपूर्ण समाजको कल्पना गरेका छन्। तसर्थ, यो कवितांशले नकारात्मकतालाई परास्त गर्ने दृढता र सकारात्मक भविष्य निर्माण गर्ने सुन्दर सपनालाई एकैसाथ प्रस्तुत गरेको छ।\r\n\r\n**(ख) एउटा सुन्दर संसार बसाल्नलाई**\r\n**नौलो घाम र नौला गीतहरू गाउनलाई ।**\r\n**प्रस्तुत सन्दर्भ:** यो कवितांश \"उज्यालो यात्रा\" कविताबाट लिइएको हो, जसमा कविले आफ्नो यात्राको अन्तिम लक्ष्य र त्यसबाट प्राप्त हुने सुखद परिणामको चित्रण गरेका छन्।\r\n\r\n**विस्तृत व्याख्या:** यस अंशमा कविको \'उज्यालो यात्रा\' को अन्तिम गन्तव्य स्पष्ट रूपमा देखाइएको छ, जुन हो—\'एउटा सुन्दर संसार बसाल्नु\'। यो \'सुन्दर संसार\' भनेको भौतिक रूपमा मात्र सुन्दर नभई सामाजिक, सांस्कृतिक र भावनात्मक रूपमा पनि सुन्दर भएको समाज हो। यो एउटा यस्तो संसार हो, जहाँ विभेद, अन्याय, गरिबी र अन्धविश्वास जस्ता कुनै पनि कुरूपताहरू छैनन्, बरु माया, सद्भाव र समानता मात्र छ।\r\n\r\nयो सुन्दर संसारको आगमनलाई \'नौलो घाम\' ले प्रतीकका रूपमा प्रस्तुत गरेको छ। \'नौलो घाम\' नयाँ युग, नयाँ चेतना र नयाँ बिहानीको प्रतीक हो। यसले अज्ञानताको अन्धकारलाई चिरेर ज्ञान र प्रगतिको उज्यालो ल्याउने सङ्केत गर्दछ। जब यस्तो नयाँ बिहानी आउँछ, तब मानिसहरूले \'नौला गीतहरू\' गाउनेछन्। यी \'नौला गीतहरू\' खुसी, स्वतन्त्रता र सफलताको उत्सवका प्रतीक हुन्। यी गीतहरूले पुरानो युगको पीडालाई बिर्साएर नयाँ युगको आनन्दलाई अभिव्यक्त गर्नेछन्। यसरी, यो कवितांशले एक आदर्श र सुन्दर भविष्यको आशावादी चित्र प्रस्तुत गरेको छ, जुन सकारात्मक परिवर्तनका लागि गरिने सङ्घर्षको अन्तिम पुरस्कार हो।\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## भाषिक संरचना र वर्णविन्यास (Linguistic Structure and Spelling)\r\n\r\n### १. दिइएका वाक्यमा प्रयोग भएका नामयोगी पहिचान गरी लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n* **(क) तिमी**भन्दा **म जेठो छु।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** भन्दा\r\n* **(ख) घर**सम्म **पुग्न खोला तर्नुपर्छ।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** सम्म\r\n* **(ग) हामी खोला**तिर **गयौँ।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** तिर\r\n* **(घ) खोला**माथि **पुल छ।**\r\n    * **उत्तर:** माथि\r\n\r\n### २. दिइएका नामयोगीलाई वाक्यमा प्रयोग गर्नुहोस् :\r\n* **अनुसार:** नियम**अनुसार** काम गर्नुपर्छ।\r\n* **भरि:** दिन**भरि** काम गरेर ऊ थाकेको थियो।\r\n* **देखि:** म भोलि**देखि** नियमित व्यायाम गर्नेछु।\r\n* **तिर:** उनीहरू घर**तिर** लागे।\r\n* **मुनि:** बिरालो टेबल**मुनि** लुकेर बसेको छ।\r\n\r\n### ३. नामयोगी र क्रियायोगीबिचको भिन्नता उदाहरणसहित लेख्नुहोस् :\r\n**नामयोगी:** नाम वा सर्वनाम शब्दको पछाडि जोडिएर आउने अव्यय शब्दलाई नामयोगी भनिन्छ। यिनीहरूले वाक्यमा अन्य शब्दसँग सम्बन्ध देखाउँछन्।\r\n* **उदाहरण:** घर**भित्र** बिरालो छ। (यहाँ \'भित्र\' नामयोगी हो किनभने यो \'घर\' नामसँग जोडिएर आएको छ।)\r\n\r\n**क्रियायोगी:** क्रिया वा विशेषणको विशेषता जनाउने शब्दलाई क्रियायोगी भनिन्छ। यिनीहरू छुट्टै लेखिन्छन्।\r\n* **उदाहरण:** बिरालो **भित्र** पस्यो। (यहाँ \'भित्र\' क्रियायोगी हो किनभने यसले \'पस्यो\' क्रियाको विशेषता जनाएको छ र छुट्टै लेखिएको छ।)\r\n\r\n### ४. दिइएको अनुच्छेदबाट सुरु, बिच र अन्तिममा ह्रस्व इकार प्रयोग भएका शब्दको सूची बनाउनुहोस् :\r\n* **सुरुमा ह्रस्व इकार:** किताब, मिलाई, निम्ति, सिपालु, भिजाइ\r\n* **बिचमा ह्रस्व इकार:** साहित्य, कविता, आखिर, शनिबार, अहिले\r\n* **अन्तिममा ह्रस्व इकार:** कवि, अनि, पनि, प्रति, अघि\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## सिर्जना र परियोजना कार्य (Creative and Project Work)\r\n\r\n### १. \'मेरो सपनाको नेपाल\' शीर्षकमा एउटा कविता रचना गर्नुहोस्।\r\n\r\n**मेरो सपनाको नेपाल**\r\n\r\nहिमाल हाँसेको, पहाड नाचेको,\r\nतराईमा खुसीको धान झुलेको,\r\nसबै नेपालीको मन मिलेको,\r\nमेरो सपनाको नेपाल।\r\n\r\nनहोस् जहाँ कुनै जातको भेद,\r\nनहोस् जहाँ कुनै धर्मको खेद,\r\nमानवताकै लेखिएको होस् वेद,\r\nमेरो सपनाको नेपाल।\r\n\r\nभ्रष्टाचार र अन्याय हटेको,\r\nसबैको अनुहारमा हाँसो डटेको,\r\nगरिबीको बादल फाटेको,\r\nमेरो सपनाको नेपाल।\r\n\r\nज्ञान र विज्ञानको उज्यालो छाएको,\r\nहरेक युवाले स्वदेशमै काम पाएको,\r\nसबैले एकताको गीत गाएको,\r\nमेरो सपनाको नेपाल।', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-16 03:05:11'),
(80, 11406, '# Electricity and Magnetism - Grade 10 (SEE) Physics\r\n## Complete Topper Level Notes - NEB Curriculum 2080\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎯 Chapter Overview\r\n**Chapter 6: Electricity and Magnetism** is one of the most important chapters in Grade 10 Physics for SEE examination. This chapter covers fundamental concepts of electric current, magnetic fields, electromagnetic induction, and their practical applications.\r\n\r\n**Weightage:** 15-20 marks in SEE examination\r\n**Time Required:** 25-30 periods\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📚 Learning Objectives\r\nAfter studying this chapter, students will be able to:\r\n- Understand electric current and its effects\r\n- Explain magnetic fields and their properties\r\n- Analyze electromagnetic induction phenomena\r\n- Apply concepts in practical devices like motors, generators, and transformers\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## ⚡ 1. ELECTRIC CURRENT\r\n\r\n### 1.1 Definition\r\nElectric current is the flow of electric charges (electrons) through a conductor per unit time.\r\n\r\n**Formula:** \r\n```\r\nI = Q/t\r\nWhere: I = Current (Ampere), Q = Charge (Coulomb), t = Time (Second)\r\n```\r\n\r\n**SI Unit:** Ampere (A)\r\n- 1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb/1 Second\r\n- 1 mA = 10⁻³ A\r\n- 1 μA = 10⁻⁶ A\r\n\r\n### 1.2 Types of Current\r\n\r\n#### A. Direct Current (DC)\r\n- Current flows in one direction only\r\n- Constant magnitude and direction\r\n- Sources: Battery, DC generator, solar cells\r\n- Used in: Electronic devices, mobile phones, laptops\r\n\r\n#### B. Alternating Current (AC)  \r\n- Current changes direction periodically\r\n- Magnitude and direction vary sinusoidally\r\n- Frequency in Nepal: 50 Hz (changes direction 100 times per second)\r\n- Sources: AC generator, power stations\r\n- Used in: Household appliances, industrial equipment\r\n\r\n### 1.3 Effects of Electric Current\r\n\r\n#### 1. Heating Effect\r\n- When current passes through a conductor, it heats up\r\n- Electrical energy converts to heat energy\r\n- **Applications:** Electric heater, iron, toaster, bulb filament\r\n- **Formula:** H = I²Rt (Joule\'s Law)\r\n\r\n#### 2. Magnetic Effect\r\n- Current-carrying conductor behaves like a magnet\r\n- Creates magnetic field around the conductor\r\n- **Applications:** Electromagnet, electric bell, motor, generator\r\n\r\n#### 3. Chemical Effect\r\n- Current can cause chemical changes in electrolytes\r\n- **Applications:** Electroplating, electrolysis, battery charging\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🧲 2. MAGNETISM\r\n\r\n### 2.1 Magnetic Field\r\nThe space around a magnet where its magnetic influence can be felt.\r\n\r\n**Properties of Magnetic Field Lines:**\r\n- They form closed loops\r\n- Never intersect each other\r\n- Density indicates field strength\r\n- Direction: North to South (outside magnet)\r\n\r\n**SI Unit:** Tesla (T) or Weber/m²\r\n- 1 Tesla = 10⁴ Gauss\r\n\r\n### 2.2 Magnetic Field due to Current\r\n\r\n#### Oersted\'s Discovery (1820)\r\nDanish physicist Hans Christian Oersted discovered that electric current produces magnetic field.\r\n\r\n#### Right Hand Thumb Rule\r\nIf the thumb of right hand points in the direction of current, then the curled fingers show the direction of magnetic field lines.\r\n\r\n#### Magnetic Field Formulas\r\n\r\n**1. Straight Current-Carrying Conductor:**\r\n```\r\nB = (μ₀I)/(2πr)\r\nWhere: μ₀ = 4π × 10⁻⁷ T⋅m/A (permeability of free space)\r\n       I = Current, r = distance from conductor\r\n```\r\n\r\n**2. Circular Current-Carrying Coil (at center):**\r\n```\r\nB = (μ₀I)/(2r)\r\nWhere: r = radius of coil\r\n```\r\n\r\n**3. Solenoid (inside):**\r\n```\r\nB = μ₀nI\r\nWhere: n = number of turns per unit length (N/l)\r\n```\r\n\r\n### 2.3 Force on Current-Carrying Conductor\r\n\r\nWhen a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force.\r\n\r\n**Formula:**\r\n```\r\nF = BIL sin θ\r\nWhere: B = Magnetic field, I = Current, L = Length of conductor\r\n       θ = angle between current and magnetic field\r\n```\r\n\r\n**Fleming\'s Left Hand Rule:**\r\n- **Thumb:** Direction of force (motion)\r\n- **First finger:** Direction of magnetic field\r\n- **Middle finger:** Direction of current\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🔄 3. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION\r\n\r\n### 3.1 Faraday\'s Law of Electromagnetic Induction\r\n\r\n**Statement:** \"Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit, an EMF is induced in the circuit.\"\r\n\r\n**Mathematical Form:**\r\n```\r\nε = -dΦ/dt = -N(dΦ/dt)\r\nWhere: ε = induced EMF, Φ = magnetic flux, N = number of turns\r\n```\r\n\r\n**Magnetic Flux:** Φ = BA cos θ\r\n- B = magnetic field, A = area, θ = angle between B and area normal\r\n\r\n### 3.2 Lenz\'s Law\r\n\"The direction of induced current is such that it opposes the change that produced it.\"\r\n\r\n### 3.3 Fleming\'s Right Hand Rule\r\nUsed to find direction of induced current:\r\n- **Thumb:** Direction of motion of conductor\r\n- **First finger:** Direction of magnetic field  \r\n- **Middle finger:** Direction of induced current\r\n\r\n### 3.4 Methods to Increase Induced EMF\r\n1. Increase the rate of change of magnetic flux\r\n2. Increase the number of turns in the coil\r\n3. Use stronger magnets\r\n4. Move conductor faster through magnetic field\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## ⚙️ 4. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS\r\n\r\n### 4.1 Electric Motor\r\n**Principle:** Force on current-carrying conductor in magnetic field (Fleming\'s Left Hand Rule)\r\n\r\n**Function:** Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy\r\n\r\n**Construction:**\r\n- Armature (rotating coil)\r\n- Field magnets\r\n- Commutator\r\n- Carbon brushes\r\n\r\n**Applications:** Fans, washing machines, mixers, electric vehicles\r\n\r\n### 4.2 Electric Generator (Dynamo)\r\n**Principle:** Electromagnetic induction (Fleming\'s Right Hand Rule)\r\n\r\n**Function:** Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy\r\n\r\n**EMF Equation:**\r\n```\r\nE = (PΦNz)/(60A)\r\nWhere: P = number of poles, Φ = flux per pole\r\n       N = speed (rpm), z = total conductors, A = parallel paths\r\n```\r\n\r\n**Types:**\r\n- **DC Generator:** Produces direct current\r\n- **AC Generator:** Produces alternating current\r\n\r\n### 4.3 Transformer\r\n**Principle:** Mutual induction between two coils\r\n\r\n**Function:** Changes AC voltage level (step-up or step-down)\r\n\r\n**Transformer Equation:**\r\n```\r\nVp/Vs = Np/Ns = Is/Ip\r\nWhere: p = primary, s = secondary\r\n       V = voltage, N = turns, I = current\r\n```\r\n\r\n**Types:**\r\n- **Step-up Transformer:** Ns > Np (increases voltage)\r\n- **Step-down Transformer:** Ns < Np (decreases voltage)\r\n\r\n**Applications:**\r\n- Power transmission\r\n- Mobile chargers\r\n- Welding transformers\r\n- Distribution systems\r\n\r\n### 4.4 Electric Bell\r\n**Working:**\r\n1. When switch is pressed, current flows through electromagnet\r\n2. Electromagnet attracts iron armature\r\n3. Hammer strikes the gong producing sound\r\n4. Circuit breaks, electromagnet loses magnetism\r\n5. Spring pulls armature back, completing circuit again\r\n6. Process repeats rapidly creating continuous ringing\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🔌 5. HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICITY\r\n\r\n### 5.1 Electric Wiring\r\n**Three-wire System:**\r\n- **Live Wire (Red/Brown):** Carries current to appliance\r\n- **Neutral Wire (Black/Blue):** Completes the circuit\r\n- **Earth Wire (Green):** Safety wire for metal bodies\r\n\r\n### 5.2 Safety Devices\r\n\r\n#### Fuse\r\n- Thin wire that melts when excess current flows\r\n- Connected in series with live wire\r\n- **Rating:** Should be slightly higher than normal current\r\n\r\n#### Circuit Breaker\r\n- Electromagnetic switch that opens circuit during overload\r\n- Can be reset after fault is cleared\r\n- More reliable than fuse\r\n\r\n#### Earth Wire\r\n- Connects metal body of appliances to ground\r\n- Provides path for leakage current\r\n- Prevents electric shock\r\n\r\n### 5.3 Electric Power and Energy\r\n\r\n**Power:** P = VI = I²R = V²/R (Watts)\r\n\r\n**Energy:** E = Pt (Joules)\r\n\r\n**Commercial Unit:** kWh (kilowatt-hour)\r\n- 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ J\r\n- Used for electricity billing\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📊 6. IMPORTANT FORMULAS SUMMARY\r\n\r\n### Current and Resistance\r\n- Current: I = Q/t\r\n- Ohm\'s Law: V = IR\r\n- Power: P = VI = I²R = V²/R\r\n- Energy: E = Pt\r\n\r\n### Magnetic Field\r\n- Straight conductor: B = μ₀I/(2πr)\r\n- Circular coil: B = μ₀I/(2r)\r\n- Solenoid: B = μ₀nI\r\n- Force on conductor: F = BIL sin θ\r\n\r\n### Electromagnetic Induction\r\n- Faraday\'s Law: ε = -N(dΦ/dt)\r\n- Magnetic flux: Φ = BA cos θ\r\n- Generator EMF: E = (PΦNz)/(60A)\r\n- Transformer: Vp/Vs = Np/Ns\r\n\r\n### Constants\r\n- μ₀ = 4π × 10⁻⁷ T⋅m/A\r\n- 1 Tesla = 10⁴ Gauss\r\n- 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ J\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎯 7. EXAM IMPORTANT TOPICS\r\n\r\n### Very Important (Must Know)\r\n1. Faraday\'s laws of electromagnetic induction\r\n2. Fleming\'s left and right hand rules\r\n3. Working principle of motor and generator\r\n4. Transformer principle and equation\r\n5. AC vs DC comparison\r\n6. Magnetic field due to current-carrying conductors\r\n\r\n### Important\r\n1. Electric bell working\r\n2. Safety devices in household wiring\r\n3. kWh and its relation to joule\r\n4. Lenz\'s law\r\n5. Methods to increase induced EMF\r\n6. Types of transformers\r\n\r\n### Moderate\r\n1. Oersted\'s experiment\r\n2. Properties of magnetic field lines\r\n3. Electric power calculations\r\n4. Factors affecting electromagnet strength\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 💡 8. NUMERICAL PROBLEMS PRACTICE\r\n\r\n### Type 1: Current and Power\r\n**Q1:** A device draws 5A current for 2 hours. Calculate the charge flow.\r\n**Solution:** Q = It = 5 × 2 × 3600 = 36,000 C\r\n\r\n### Type 2: Magnetic Field\r\n**Q2:** Calculate magnetic field at 10 cm from a wire carrying 2A current.\r\n**Solution:** B = μ₀I/(2πr) = (4π×10⁻⁷×2)/(2π×0.1) = 4×10⁻⁶ T\r\n\r\n### Type 3: Transformer\r\n**Q3:** A transformer has 1000 primary turns and 100 secondary turns. If primary voltage is 220V, find secondary voltage.\r\n**Solution:** Vs = Vp × Ns/Np = 220 × 100/1000 = 22V\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🔬 9. PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS\r\n\r\n### Experiment 1: Oersted\'s Experiment\r\n**Aim:** To show magnetic effect of electric current\r\n**Procedure:**\r\n1. Place a compass needle near a current-carrying wire\r\n2. Switch on current and observe needle deflection\r\n3. Reverse current direction and observe\r\n\r\n### Experiment 2: Electromagnetic Induction\r\n**Aim:** To demonstrate Faraday\'s law\r\n**Procedure:**\r\n1. Connect a coil to galvanometer\r\n2. Move a magnet towards/away from coil\r\n3. Observe galvanometer deflection\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📝 10. EXAM PREPARATION TIPS\r\n\r\n### For Theory Questions\r\n1. **Definitions:** Learn exact definitions with units\r\n2. **Laws:** State laws with mathematical expressions\r\n3. **Principles:** Understand working principles of devices\r\n4. **Diagrams:** Practice neat labeled diagrams\r\n\r\n### For Numerical Problems\r\n1. **Formulas:** Memorize all important formulas\r\n2. **Units:** Always check unit consistency\r\n3. **Steps:** Show all calculation steps clearly\r\n4. **Practice:** Solve various types of problems\r\n\r\n### Common Mistakes to Avoid\r\n1. Confusing Fleming\'s left and right hand rules\r\n2. Wrong transformer equation application\r\n3. Mixing up AC and DC properties\r\n4. Incorrect magnetic field direction\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🏆 11. PREVIOUS YEAR SEE QUESTIONS PATTERN\r\n\r\n### Theory Questions (2-3 marks each)\r\n- Define electromagnetic induction\r\n- State Faraday\'s laws\r\n- Explain working of electric motor\r\n- Compare AC and DC\r\n- Describe safety measures in household wiring\r\n\r\n### Numerical Questions (3-4 marks each)\r\n- Transformer calculations\r\n- Magnetic field calculations\r\n- Power and energy problems\r\n- Current and charge calculations\r\n\r\n### Long Questions (5-6 marks)\r\n- Working principle of generator with diagram\r\n- Complete explanation of transformer\r\n- Electric bell mechanism with diagram\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📖 12. ADDITIONAL STUDY RESOURCES\r\n\r\n### Reference Books\r\n1. NEB Textbook (Class 10 Science)\r\n2. Khullakitab Notes\r\n3. Readersnepal Guide\r\n4. Local guide books\r\n\r\n### Online Resources\r\n1. Khan Academy Physics\r\n2. YouTube educational channels\r\n3. PhET simulations\r\n4. Educational websites\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## ✅ 13. CHAPTER CHECKLIST\r\n\r\n**Before SEE Exam, ensure you can:**\r\n- [ ] Explain all three effects of electric current\r\n- [ ] Apply Fleming\'s rules correctly\r\n- [ ] Solve transformer numerical problems\r\n- [ ] Draw and explain motor/generator diagrams  \r\n- [ ] Calculate magnetic fields using formulas\r\n- [ ] Describe household electrical safety\r\n- [ ] Compare different types of current\r\n- [ ] Explain electromagnetic induction completely\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎊 CONCLUSION\r\n\r\nElectricity and Magnetism is a scoring chapter if concepts are clear. Focus on understanding principles rather than memorizing. Practice numerical problems regularly and draw neat diagrams. This chapter forms the foundation for advanced physics topics in higher classes.\r\n\r\n**Remember:** Physics is not about memorizing formulas but understanding the beauty of nature\'s laws!\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n*This note is prepared according to NEB curriculum 2080 for SEE examination. Best wishes for your preparation!*\r\n\r\n**📞 Need Help?** Practice more problems and refer to your textbook for additional examples.\r\n\r\n---', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-16 03:05:11'),
(81, 11403, '# Energy – Topper Level Notes (Physics, Grade 10 NEB)\r\n\r\n## 1. What is Energy?\r\n- **Definition:** Energy is the capacity of a body to do work.\r\n- **SI Unit:** Joule (J)\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 2. Types of Energy\r\n\r\n**A. Kinetic Energy (KE)**\r\n- Energy due to motion.\r\n- **Formula:** KE = ½ mv²  \r\n  (m = mass in kg, v = velocity in m/s)\r\n\r\n**B. Potential Energy (PE)**\r\n- Energy due to position or state.\r\n- **Gravitational PE:** PE = mgh  \r\n  (g = 9.8 m/s², h = height in m)\r\n- **Elastic PE:** PE = ½ kx²  \r\n  (k = spring constant, x = extension/compression)\r\n\r\n**C. Other Important Types**\r\n- **Chemical, Electrical, Thermal, Nuclear, Light, and Sound Energy**\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 3. Law of Conservation of Energy \r\n- **Statement:** Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only changed from one form to another.\r\n- **Mathematical Form:**  \r\n  Initial Total Energy = Final Total Energy  \r\n  KE₁ + PE₁ = KE₂ + PE₂\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 4. Sources of Energy\r\n**A. Renewable:** Solar, Wind, Hydro, Biomass, Geothermal  \r\n**B. Non-renewable:** Coal, Oil, Natural Gas, Nuclear\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 5. Major Energy Transformations\r\n\r\n| Device/Process        | Original Form   | Final Form        |\r\n|----------------------|-----------------|-------------------|\r\n| Torch                | Chemical        | Light             |\r\n| Hydroelectric Plant  | Potential       | Electrical        |\r\n| Car Engine           | Chemical        | Kinetic/Heat      |\r\n| Electric Bulb        | Electrical      | Light/Heat        |\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 6. Work-Energy Principle  \r\n- **Work-Energy Theorem:**  \r\n  The net work done on an object equals the change in its kinetic energy.  \r\n  W = KE₂ – KE₁\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 7. Efficiency\r\n- **Formula:** Efficiency (%) = (Useful output energy / Total input energy) x 100\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 8. Energy Crisis & Conservation\r\n\r\n- **Crisis:** Overuse of non-renewable resources → shortages & environmental damage.\r\n- **Conservation:** \r\n  - Use energy-saving devices.\r\n  - Switch to renewable sources.\r\n  - Practice efficient consumption.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 9. Common Exam Questions\r\n\r\n1. Define energy and its SI unit.\r\n2. Explain the law of conservation of energy with an example.\r\n3. List differences between renewable and non-renewable energy.\r\n4. A 2kg mass is lifted to a height of 5m. Calculate PE. (Ans: 98J)\r\n5. What is the efficiency if a machine gives 600J of output from 1000J input? (Ans: 60%)\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 10. Important Formulas Summary Table\r\n\r\n| Formula            | Meaning                |\r\n|--------------------|------------------------|\r\n| KE = ½ mv²         | Kinetic Energy         |\r\n| PE = mgh           | Potential Energy       |\r\n| W = Fd             | Work Done              |\r\n| P = W/t            | Power                  |\r\n| Efficiency = (Output/Input) x 100 | Efficiency |\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 11. Easy Memory Aids\r\n\r\n- **KE:** “Moving Mass, Velocity Squared!”\r\n- **PE:** “Mass x Gravity x Height!”\r\n- **Law of Conservation:** “Energy isn\'t made or lost, only swapped!”\r\n\r\n---\r\n', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-16 03:05:11');
INSERT INTO `course_notes_content` (`id`, `topic_id`, `content`, `markdown_format`, `created_at`, `updated_at`) VALUES
(82, 11401, '# Force - Grade 10 (SEE) Physics\r\n## Complete Chapter Notes with All Exercises - NEB Curriculum 2080\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎯 Chapter Overview\r\n**Chapter 1: Force** is the foundation chapter of Grade 10 Physics for SEE examination. This chapter covers fundamental concepts of gravitational force, Newton\'s laws, weight, mass, and their applications in daily life.\r\n\r\n**Weightage:** 12-15 marks in SEE examination\r\n**Time Required:** 20-25 periods\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📚 Learning Objectives\r\nAfter studying this chapter, students will be able to:\r\n- Define force and understand its types\r\n- Explain Newton\'s Universal Law of Gravitation\r\n- Distinguish between mass and weight\r\n- Calculate gravitational force between objects\r\n- Understand concepts of free fall and weightlessness\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## ⚡ 1. FORCE\r\n\r\n### 1.1 Definition\r\nForce can be defined as a push or pull that tries to change the state of a body from motion to rest and rest to motion in a straight line.\r\n\r\n**SI Unit:** Newton (N)\r\n**CGS Unit:** dyne\r\n**Conversion:** 1 N = 10⁵ dynes\r\n\r\n### 1.2 Types of Force\r\n1. **Pulling Force (Attraction Force)**\r\n   - Example: Magnet attracting iron\r\n2. **Pushing Force (Repulsion Force)**\r\n   - Example: Two like poles of magnets\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🌍 2. GRAVITATIONAL FORCE\r\n\r\n### 2.1 Definition\r\nThe force of attraction between any two bodies of the universe due to their masses is called gravitational force.\r\n\r\n### 2.2 Newton\'s Universal Law of Gravitation\r\n\r\n**Statement:** \"The force of gravitation between any two bodies in the universe is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres.\"\r\n\r\n**Mathematical Expression:**\r\n```\r\nF = G(m₁m₂)/d²\r\n\r\nWhere:\r\nF = Gravitational force (N)\r\nG = Universal gravitational constant = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ Nm²/kg²\r\nm₁, m₂ = Masses of two bodies (kg)\r\nd = Distance between their centers (m)\r\n```\r\n\r\n### 2.3 Universal Gravitational Constant (G)\r\n\r\n**Definition:** G is defined as the gravitational force produced between two bodies of unit mass each when they are kept at a unit distance from their centre.\r\n\r\n**Value:** G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ Nm²/kg²\r\n**SI Unit:** Nm²/kg²\r\n\r\n**Significance:** If m₁ = 1 kg, m₂ = 1 kg, d = 1 m, then F = G\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🔽 3. GRAVITY AND ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY\r\n\r\n### 3.1 Gravity\r\nThe force of attraction of the earth on a body is called gravity.\r\n\r\n### 3.2 Acceleration due to Gravity (g)\r\n\r\n**Definition:** The rate of change of velocity due to gravity is called acceleration due to gravity.\r\n\r\n**Formula Derivation:**\r\n```\r\nFor a body of mass \'m\' on Earth\'s surface:\r\nF = GMm/R² (from Newton\'s law)\r\nF = mg (from Newton\'s second law)\r\n\r\nTherefore: mg = GMm/R²\r\n∴ g = GM/R²\r\n\r\nWhere:\r\ng = acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)\r\nG = gravitational constant\r\nM = mass of Earth\r\nR = radius of Earth\r\n```\r\n\r\n**Standard Value:** g = 9.8 m/s² (on Earth)\r\n\r\n### 3.3 Variation of \'g\'\r\n- **g ∝ 1/R²** (inversely proportional to square of radius)\r\n- g is greater at poles than at equator\r\n- g decreases with altitude\r\n- g varies from planet to planet\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## ⚖️ 4. MASS AND WEIGHT\r\n\r\n### 4.1 Mass\r\n- Amount of matter contained in a body\r\n- Remains constant everywhere in universe\r\n- Scalar quantity\r\n- SI Unit: kilogram (kg)\r\n\r\n### 4.2 Weight\r\n- Force with which a body is attracted towards center of Earth\r\n- Changes from place to place\r\n- Vector quantity\r\n- SI Unit: Newton (N)\r\n\r\n**Relationship:** Weight = mg\r\n\r\n### 4.3 Comparison Table\r\n\r\n| Mass | Weight |\r\n|------|--------|\r\n| Amount of matter in body | Force of attraction by Earth |\r\n| Constant everywhere | Varies with location |\r\n| Scalar quantity | Vector quantity |\r\n| Unit: kg | Unit: N |\r\n| Measured by beam balance | Measured by spring balance |\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🍎 5. FREE FALL AND WEIGHTLESSNESS\r\n\r\n### 5.1 Free Fall\r\n**Definition:** When a body falls freely towards the center of Earth under the influence of gravitational pull, the motion is called free fall.\r\n\r\n**Characteristics:**\r\n- Initial velocity (u) = 0\r\n- Acceleration = g = 9.8 m/s²\r\n- Air resistance neglected\r\n\r\n**Equations of Motion for Free Fall:**\r\n```\r\nv = u + gt = gt (since u = 0)\r\nh = ut + ½gt² = ½gt²\r\nv² = u² + 2gh = 2gh\r\n```\r\n\r\n### 5.2 Weightlessness\r\n**Definition:** Weightlessness is the state of a body in which it feels that it is not influenced by any force.\r\n\r\n**Examples:**\r\n- Person in a falling lift\r\n- Astronauts in satellites\r\n- Objects in free fall\r\n\r\n**Condition:** When acceleration of body equals acceleration due to gravity\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📊 6. COMPLETE EXERCISE SOLUTIONS\r\n\r\n### **2. Answer the following questions:**\r\n\r\n**a. What is gravitation? What are the factors that affect gravitation? Write the SI unit of gravitation.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** The mutual force of attraction between two bodies is called gravitation.\r\n\r\n**Factors affecting gravitation:**\r\n- Mass of the bodies\r\n- Distance between their centers\r\n\r\n**SI unit:** Newton (N)\r\n\r\n**b. State Newton\'s Universal Law of gravitation.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Universal law of gravitation states that \"everybody in this universe attracts another body with a force, which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres.\"\r\n\r\n**c. What will happen to the gravitational force between two bodies if the distance between them is halved keeping their masses constant?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** \r\nGiven: F = Gm₁m₂/d² ... (i)\r\n\r\nIf distance is halved: d₂ = d/2\r\n\r\nNew force: F₂ = Gm₁m₂/(d/2)² = Gm₁m₂/(d²/4) = 4Gm₁m₂/d² ... (ii)\r\n\r\nFrom (i) and (ii): F₂ = 4F\r\n\r\n**Therefore, the gravitational force becomes 4 times greater.**\r\n\r\n**d. What will be the gravitational force between two heavenly bodies if the masses of both are tripled keeping the distance constant?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:**\r\nGiven: F = Gm₁m₂/d² ... (i)\r\n\r\nIf masses are tripled: m₁\' = 3m₁, m₂\' = 3m₂\r\n\r\nNew force: F₂ = G(3m₁)(3m₂)/d² = 9Gm₁m₂/d² ... (ii)\r\n\r\nFrom (i) and (ii): F₂ = 9F\r\n\r\n**Therefore, the gravitational force becomes 9 times greater.**\r\n\r\n**e. What will be the gravitational force between two bodies if the masses of each is doubled and the distance between them is halved?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:**\r\nGiven: F = Gm₁m₂/d² ... (i)\r\n\r\nIf masses are doubled and distance halved:\r\n- m₁\' = 2m₁, m₂\' = 2m₂\r\n- d\' = d/2\r\n\r\nNew force: F₂ = G(2m₁)(2m₂)/(d/2)² = 4Gm₁m₂/(d²/4) = 16Gm₁m₂/d² ... (ii)\r\n\r\nFrom (i) and (ii): F₂ = 16F\r\n\r\n**Therefore, the gravitational force becomes 16 times greater.**\r\n\r\n**f. Define G. Also write its value and SI unit.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** G is defined as the gravitational force produced between two bodies of unit mass each when they are kept at a unit distance from their center.\r\n\r\n**Value:** 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ Nm²/kg²\r\n**SI Unit:** Nm²/kg²\r\n\r\n**g. In the formula g = GM/R², what do G, M and R stand for? Prove that g ∝ 1/R².**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** \r\n- G = Gravitational constant\r\n- M = Mass of the Earth\r\n- R = Radius of the Earth\r\n\r\n**Proof:**\r\nLet \'m\' be the mass of an object on Earth\'s surface.\r\n\r\nFrom Newton\'s law: F = GMm/R² ... (i)\r\nFrom Newton\'s second law: F = mg ... (ii)\r\n\r\nEquating (i) and (ii): mg = GMm/R²\r\n\r\nTherefore: g = GM/R²\r\n\r\nSince G and M are constants: g ∝ 1/R²\r\n\r\n**h. What will be the effect on the acceleration due to gravity of the earth if it is compressed to the size of the moon?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** If Earth is compressed to the size of moon, the acceleration due to gravity will increase because g ∝ 1/R². As radius decreases, g increases.\r\n\r\n**i. The acceleration due to gravity of Jupiter is 25 m/s². What does it mean?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** It means that if any object is dropped near Jupiter\'s surface, it will accelerate downward at the rate of 25 m/s² due to Jupiter\'s gravity.\r\n\r\n**j. A coin and a feather are dropped in vacuum. Which one will reach the ground first? Why?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Both will reach the ground at the same time because in vacuum there is no air resistance, and acceleration due to gravity is same for all objects regardless of their mass.\r\n\r\n**k. Where does a body have more weight - at the pole or at the equator of the earth? Explain with reason.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** A body has more weight at poles than at equator because polar radius is less than equatorial radius. Since g ∝ 1/R², gravity is stronger at poles, making weight greater.\r\n\r\n**l. When an apple falls towards the earth, the earth moves up to meet the apple. Is this true? If yes, why is the earth\'s motion not noticeable?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Yes, it is true according to Newton\'s third law. However, Earth\'s motion is not noticeable because Earth\'s mass is enormously larger than the apple\'s mass, so its acceleration is negligibly small.\r\n\r\n**m. An astronaut is said to be weightless when he travels in a satellite. Does it mean that the earth does not attract him?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** No, Earth still attracts the astronaut. Weightlessness occurs because both the astronaut and satellite are in free fall together, creating the sensation of zero weight.\r\n\r\n**n. What is the importance of gravitational force? Write any two points.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:**\r\n1. We are able to perform our daily activities due to gravitational force\r\n2. The existence of atmosphere around Earth is possible due to gravitational force\r\n\r\n**o. What is free fall? What happens to the weight of a body when it is falling freely under the action of gravity?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** When a body falls freely towards Earth\'s center under gravitational influence, the motion is called free fall. During free fall, the apparent weight becomes zero because the body accelerates at g.\r\n\r\n**p. What is the effect of gravity on a falling object? Write the conclusion obtained from the coin and feather experiment.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Gravity causes falling objects to accelerate toward Earth. The coin and feather experiment proves that in vacuum, all objects fall at the same rate independent of their masses.\r\n\r\n**q. Write the differences between the fall of a parachute on Earth and its fall on the moon. On what condition does a body have free fall?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** On Earth, parachute falls slowly due to air resistance and stronger gravity. On moon, it falls faster (no air resistance) but with weaker gravity. \r\n\r\n**Condition for free fall:** When acceleration of body equals acceleration due to gravity.\r\n\r\n**r. Write any two examples of weightlessness.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:**\r\n1. Person in a falling lift\r\n2. Astronauts in satellites\r\n\r\n**s. Define:**\r\n\r\n**i. Acceleration due to gravity:** The acceleration produced on a body due to Earth\'s gravitational force.\r\n\r\n**ii. Weightlessness:** State of a body when it feels no gravitational force acting on it.\r\n\r\n**iii. Free fall:** Motion of a body falling freely under gravity with no external resistance.\r\n\r\n**iv. Null point:** Point between two celestial bodies where net gravitational force is zero.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### **3. Distinguish between:**\r\n\r\n**a. Gravity and Gravitation**\r\n\r\n| Gravity | Gravitation |\r\n|---------|-------------|\r\n| Force of attraction of Earth on a body | Mutual force of attraction between any two bodies |\r\n| Strong force | Weak force |\r\n| Example: Earth pulls 1kg object with 9.8N | Example: Attraction between books, planets |\r\n\r\n**b. Gravity and Acceleration due to gravity**\r\n\r\n| Gravity | Acceleration due to gravity |\r\n|---------|----------------------------|\r\n| Force of attraction of Earth | Acceleration produced due to gravity |\r\n| Cause of acceleration | Effect of gravity |\r\n| SI unit: Newton | SI unit: m/s² |\r\n\r\n**c. Mass and Weight**\r\n\r\n| Mass | Weight |\r\n|------|--------|\r\n| Amount of matter in body | Force of attraction by Earth |\r\n| Same everywhere | Varies with location |\r\n| Scalar quantity | Vector quantity |\r\n\r\n**d. g and G**\r\n\r\n| g | G |\r\n|---|---|\r\n| Acceleration due to gravity | Universal gravitational constant |\r\n| Unit: m/s² | Unit: Nm²/kg² |\r\n| Vector quantity | Scalar quantity |\r\n\r\n**e. Free fall and Weightlessness**\r\n\r\n| Free fall | Weightlessness |\r\n|-----------|----------------|\r\n| Body falling under gravity only | State of feeling no gravitational force |\r\n| Example: Fruit falling from tree | Example: Person in falling lift |\r\n\r\n**f. Gravitational force and Acceleration due to gravity**\r\n\r\n| Gravitational Force | Acceleration due to gravity |\r\n|--------------------|----------------------------|\r\n| Force of attraction between masses | Acceleration produced by gravity |\r\n| SI unit: Newton | SI unit: m/s² |\r\n\r\n**g. Weightlessness in space and weightlessness on Earth**\r\n\r\n| Weightlessness in Space | Weightlessness on Earth |\r\n|-------------------------|-------------------------|\r\n| Apparent weight zero in space | Apparent weight zero on Earth |\r\n| Occurs at null point | Occurs during free fall |\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### **4. Give reason:**\r\n\r\n**a. Newton\'s law of gravitation is called a universal law.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because this law applies to all bodies in the universe, from microscopic particles to massive celestial bodies.\r\n\r\n**b. The weight of a body decreases with increase in distance from the earth\'s surface.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because g ∝ 1/R². As distance from Earth increases, value of g decreases, hence weight decreases.\r\n\r\n**c. The weight of a stone is less at the top of a mountain than at its bottom.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because g is greater at bottom (closer to sea level) than at top due to less distance from Earth\'s center.\r\n\r\n**d. The weight of a body is less on the moon than its weight on the earth.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because moon has weaker gravitational force than Earth due to smaller mass and radius.\r\n\r\n**e. The moon has no atmosphere.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because moon\'s gravitational force is too weak to hold gas molecules in its atmosphere.\r\n\r\n**f. The value of g is greater at the poles than at the equator.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because polar radius is smaller than equatorial radius, and g ∝ 1/R².\r\n\r\n**g. There is more role of the moon than the sun to cause tides in oceans.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Although sun is more massive, moon is much closer to Earth, making its gravitational effect stronger for causing tides.\r\n\r\n**h. Tides occur in oceans but not in lakes.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because ocean water mass is much larger than lake water, making gravitational effects more noticeable.\r\n\r\n**i. It is difficult to lift a large stone on the surface of the earth but it is easy to lift a small one.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because large stone has more mass, so Earth attracts it with greater gravitational force.\r\n\r\n**j. Mass of Jupiter is 319 times more than Earth but its acceleration due to gravity is only 2.5 times more.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because Jupiter\'s radius is about 11 times larger than Earth\'s, and g ∝ 1/R².\r\n\r\n**k. The weight of a body will be zero during free fall.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because during free fall, the body\'s acceleration equals g, making apparent weight zero.\r\n\r\n**l. A paratrooper does not get injured while jumping from a flying aeroplane.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because parachute increases air resistance, reducing the falling acceleration and impact force.\r\n\r\n**m. When a coin and feather are dropped from a building, the coin reaches ground earlier.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because coin has greater mass and experiences less air resistance compared to feather.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### **5. Diagrammatic Questions:**\r\n\r\n**1. Earth\'s orbit around sun - gravitational force variation**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** The gravitational force increases as Earth moves from point A to point B because distance to sun is less at B than A, and F ∝ 1/d².\r\n\r\n**2. Feather and coin experiment**\r\n\r\n**a. Name of experiment:** \"Feather and coin\" experiment\r\n\r\n**b. Conclusion:** In vacuum, all objects fall with same acceleration regardless of mass.\r\n\r\n**c. Effect with air:** Coin falls first because it has less air resistance than feather.\r\n\r\n**3. Gravitational force calculation**\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- m₁ = 800 kg\r\n- m₂ = 400 kg  \r\n- d = 8 m\r\n- G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ Nm²/kg²\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nF = Gm₁m₂/d²\r\nF = (6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ × 800 × 400)/8²\r\nF = (6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ × 320000)/64\r\nF = 3.335 × 10⁻⁷ N\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🔢 6. NUMERICAL PROBLEMS\r\n\r\n### **Problem Type 1: Gravitational Force Calculation**\r\n\r\n**Q1:** Calculate the gravitational force between two objects of masses 50 kg and 80 kg separated by 10 m.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- m₁ = 50 kg\r\n- m₂ = 80 kg\r\n- d = 10 m\r\n- G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ Nm²/kg²\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nF = Gm₁m₂/d²\r\nF = (6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ × 50 × 80)/10²\r\nF = (6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ × 4000)/100\r\nF = 2.668 × 10⁻⁹ N\r\n\r\n### **Problem Type 2: Weight Calculation**\r\n\r\n**Q2:** Calculate the weight of a 75 kg person on Earth\'s surface.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- m = 75 kg\r\n- g = 9.8 m/s²\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nWeight = mg\r\nWeight = 75 × 9.8 = 735 N\r\n\r\n### **Problem Type 3: Free Fall Problems**\r\n\r\n**Q3:** A ball is dropped from height of 45 m. Calculate time taken to reach ground.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- h = 45 m\r\n- u = 0 (dropped)\r\n- g = 9.8 m/s²\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nh = ut + ½gt²\r\n45 = 0 + ½ × 9.8 × t²\r\n45 = 4.9t²\r\nt² = 45/4.9 = 9.18\r\nt = 3.03 s\r\n\r\n### **Problem Type 4: Variation Problems**\r\n\r\n**Q4:** If gravitational force between two objects is 100 N, what will be the force if distance is doubled?\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- Initial force F₁ = 100 N\r\n- New distance d₂ = 2d₁\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nF₁ = Gm₁m₂/d₁²\r\nF₂ = Gm₁m₂/(2d₁)² = Gm₁m₂/4d₁²\r\n\r\nF₂ = F₁/4 = 100/4 = 25 N\r\n\r\n### **Problem Type 5: Weight on Different Planets**\r\n\r\n**Q5:** A person weighs 600 N on Earth. What will be his weight on Jupiter? (g_Jupiter = 25 m/s²)\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- Weight on Earth = 600 N\r\n- g_Earth = 9.8 m/s²\r\n- g_Jupiter = 25 m/s²\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nMass = Weight_Earth/g_Earth = 600/9.8 = 61.22 kg\r\n\r\nWeight on Jupiter = mass × g_Jupiter\r\nWeight on Jupiter = 61.22 × 25 = 1530.5 N\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📈 7. IMPORTANT FORMULAS SUMMARY\r\n\r\n### **Force and Gravitation**\r\n- F = Gm₁m₂/d²\r\n- G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ Nm²/kg²\r\n- Weight = mg\r\n- g = GM/R²\r\n\r\n### **Free Fall Equations**\r\n- v = gt (when u = 0)\r\n- h = ½gt²\r\n- v² = 2gh\r\n\r\n### **Relationships**\r\n- F ∝ m₁m₂ (masses)\r\n- F ∝ 1/d² (distance)\r\n- g ∝ 1/R² (radius)\r\n- Weight ∝ g (gravity)\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎯 8. EXAM PREPARATION TIPS\r\n\r\n### **Theory Questions (2-3 marks)**\r\n- Learn exact definitions with units\r\n- Practice distinguishing between concepts\r\n- Memorize Newton\'s laws and statements\r\n- Draw neat labeled diagrams\r\n\r\n### **Give Reason Questions (2-3 marks)**\r\n- Understand cause-effect relationships\r\n- Use formulas to support reasoning\r\n- Connect to daily life examples\r\n- Practice explaining variations\r\n\r\n### **Numerical Problems (3-4 marks)**\r\n- Memorize all important formulas\r\n- Show all calculation steps\r\n- Check unit consistency\r\n- Practice different problem types\r\n\r\n### **Long Questions (5-6 marks)**\r\n- Complete derivations with steps\r\n- Detailed explanations with examples\r\n- Multiple parts of same concept\r\n- Diagrams where required\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🏆 9. PREVIOUS YEAR SEE QUESTIONS PATTERN\r\n\r\n### **Common Theory Questions**\r\n- Define gravitation and its factors\r\n- State Newton\'s universal law\r\n- Distinguish between mass and weight\r\n- Explain free fall and weightlessness\r\n- Give reasons for gravitational variations\r\n\r\n### **Common Numerical Types**\r\n- Gravitational force between objects\r\n- Weight calculations on different planets\r\n- Free fall time and velocity problems\r\n- Force variation with distance/mass changes\r\n- Comparison problems\r\n\r\n### **Important Diagrams**\r\n- Earth\'s elliptical orbit showing gravitational variation\r\n- Feather and coin experiment setup\r\n- Free body diagrams showing forces\r\n- Gravitational force between two spheres\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## ✅ 10. CHAPTER CHECKLIST\r\n\r\n**Before SEE Exam, ensure you can:**\r\n- [ ] Define force, gravity, and gravitation clearly\r\n- [ ] State and apply Newton\'s universal law\r\n- [ ] Distinguish between all given concepts\r\n- [ ] Solve all types of numerical problems\r\n- [ ] Explain all \"give reason\" questions\r\n- [ ] Draw required diagrams accurately\r\n- [ ] Understand free fall and weightlessness\r\n- [ ] Calculate weights on different planets\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎊 CONCLUSION\r\n\r\nForce is a fundamental chapter that builds the foundation for understanding motion, energy, and other physics concepts. Master the definitions, formulas, and numerical problem-solving techniques. Practice distinguishing between similar concepts and explaining daily life phenomena using gravitational principles.\r\n\r\n**Key Success Formula:** \r\nConcept Understanding + Formula Practice + Numerical Solving = SEE Success!\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n*This complete note covers all exercises from the Force chapter of NEB Science textbook for SEE examination preparation. Practice regularly and refer to your textbook for additional examples.*\r\n\r\n**📞 Need Help?** Review the numerical problems and practice more variations for complete mastery.\r\n\r\n---', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-16 03:05:11'),
(83, 11405, '# Light - Grade 10 (SEE) Physics\r\n## Complete Chapter Notes with All Exercises - NEB Curriculum 2080\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎯 Chapter Overview\r\n**Chapter 5: Light** is one of the most crucial chapters in Grade 10 Physics for SEE examination. This chapter covers fundamental concepts of reflection, refraction, mirrors, lenses, and their practical applications in daily life.\r\n\r\n**Weightage:** 15-18 marks in SEE examination\r\n**Time Required:** 30-35 periods\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📚 Learning Objectives\r\nAfter studying this chapter, students will be able to:\r\n- Understand properties and behavior of light\r\n- Explain laws of reflection and refraction\r\n- Analyze image formation in mirrors and lenses\r\n- Apply mirror and lens formulas to solve problems\r\n- Draw accurate ray diagrams for various optical situations\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 💡 1. INTRODUCTION TO LIGHT\r\n\r\n### 1.1 Definition\r\nLight is a form of energy that enables us to see objects around us. It travels in straight lines and shows both wave and particle nature.\r\n\r\n**Properties of Light:**\r\n- Light travels in straight lines (rectilinear propagation)\r\n- Speed of light in vacuum = 3 × 10⁸ m/s\r\n- Light shows reflection, refraction, and dispersion\r\n- Light carries energy and momentum\r\n\r\n### 1.2 Sources of Light\r\n**Natural Sources:** Sun, stars, fireflies, lightning\r\n**Artificial Sources:** Electric bulb, candle, LED, laser\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🪞 2. REFLECTION OF LIGHT\r\n\r\n### 2.1 Definition\r\nThe bouncing back of light when it strikes a surface is called reflection of light.\r\n\r\n### 2.2 Laws of Reflection\r\n1. **First Law:** The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal to the surface at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.\r\n2. **Second Law:** The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.\r\n   **∠i = ∠r**\r\n\r\n### 2.3 Types of Reflection\r\n**Regular Reflection:** Occurs on smooth polished surfaces (plane mirror)\r\n**Irregular Reflection:** Occurs on rough surfaces (diffused reflection)\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🔄 3. SPHERICAL MIRRORS\r\n\r\n### 3.1 Definition\r\nSpherical mirrors are mirrors whose reflecting surfaces are curved like a sphere.\r\n\r\n### 3.2 Types of Spherical Mirrors\r\n\r\n#### A. Concave Mirror (Converging Mirror)\r\n- Reflecting surface curves inward\r\n- Converges parallel rays to a point\r\n- Real and virtual images both possible\r\n\r\n#### B. Convex Mirror (Diverging Mirror)\r\n- Reflecting surface curves outward  \r\n- Diverges parallel rays\r\n- Always forms virtual, erect, diminished images\r\n\r\n### 3.3 Important Terms\r\n\r\n**Centre of Curvature (C):** Centre of the sphere of which mirror is a part\r\n**Radius of Curvature (R):** Radius of the sphere of which mirror is a part\r\n**Pole (P):** Centre point of the mirror surface\r\n**Principal Axis:** Imaginary line passing through pole and centre of curvature\r\n**Principal Focus (F):** Point on principal axis where parallel rays converge or appear to diverge\r\n**Focal Length (f):** Distance between pole and principal focus\r\n**Aperture:** Effective diameter of the mirror\r\n\r\n**Relationship:** f = R/2\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📐 4. RAY DIAGRAMS AND IMAGE FORMATION\r\n\r\n### 4.1 Rules for Drawing Ray Diagrams\r\n\r\n#### For Concave Mirror:\r\n1. **Ray parallel to principal axis** → reflects through focus\r\n2. **Ray through focus** → reflects parallel to principal axis\r\n3. **Ray through centre of curvature** → reflects back along same path\r\n4. **Ray hitting pole** → reflects symmetrically about principal axis\r\n\r\n#### For Convex Mirror:\r\n1. **Ray parallel to principal axis** → appears to come from focus after reflection\r\n2. **Ray toward focus** → reflects parallel to principal axis\r\n3. **Ray toward centre** → reflects back along same path\r\n\r\n### 4.2 Image Formation in Concave Mirror\r\n\r\n| Object Position | Image Position | Image Nature | Image Size |\r\n|-----------------|----------------|--------------|------------|\r\n| At infinity | At F | Real, inverted | Point sized |\r\n| Beyond C | Between F and C | Real, inverted | Diminished |\r\n| At C | At C | Real, inverted | Same size |\r\n| Between C and F | Beyond C | Real, inverted | Enlarged |\r\n| At F | At infinity | Real, inverted | Highly enlarged |\r\n| Between F and P | Behind mirror | Virtual, erect | Enlarged |\r\n\r\n### 4.3 Image Formation in Convex Mirror\r\n- **Always:** Virtual, erect, diminished\r\n- **Position:** Between pole and focus\r\n- **Applications:** Rear-view mirrors, security mirrors\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📝 5. MIRROR FORMULA AND MAGNIFICATION\r\n\r\n### 5.1 Mirror Formula\r\n```\r\n1/f = 1/v + 1/u\r\n\r\nWhere:\r\nf = focal length\r\nv = image distance\r\nu = object distance\r\n```\r\n\r\n### 5.2 Sign Convention (New Cartesian)\r\n- All distances measured from pole of mirror\r\n- Distances measured in direction of incident light are positive\r\n- Distances measured opposite to incident light are negative\r\n- Heights measured upward are positive, downward are negative\r\n\r\n**For Concave Mirror:** f = negative\r\n**For Convex Mirror:** f = positive\r\n\r\n### 5.3 Magnification\r\n```\r\nm = -v/u = h\'/h\r\n\r\nWhere:\r\nm = magnification\r\nv = image distance\r\nu = object distance  \r\nh\' = image height\r\nh = object height\r\n```\r\n\r\n**Magnification Types:**\r\n- **m > 1:** Enlarged image\r\n- **m < 1:** Diminished image\r\n- **m = 1:** Same size image\r\n- **m = positive:** Virtual, erect image\r\n- **m = negative:** Real, inverted image\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🌈 6. REFRACTION OF LIGHT\r\n\r\n### 6.1 Definition\r\nThe bending of light when it passes from one medium to another is called refraction.\r\n\r\n### 6.2 Laws of Refraction (Snell\'s Laws)\r\n1. **First Law:** Incident ray, refracted ray, and normal lie in same plane\r\n2. **Second Law:** For any two given media, the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is constant\r\n   ```\r\n   sin i/sin r = μ = constant\r\n   ```\r\n\r\n### 6.3 Refractive Index\r\n```\r\nμ = c/v = sin i/sin r\r\n\r\nWhere:\r\nμ = refractive index\r\nc = speed of light in vacuum\r\nv = speed of light in medium\r\ni = angle of incidence\r\nr = angle of refraction\r\n```\r\n\r\n**Absolute Refractive Index:** Refractive index with respect to vacuum\r\n**Relative Refractive Index:** ₁μ₂ = μ₂/μ₁\r\n\r\n### 6.4 Refraction through Glass Slab\r\n- Light bends toward normal when entering denser medium\r\n- Light bends away from normal when entering rarer medium\r\n- Emergent ray is parallel to incident ray but laterally displaced\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🔍 7. LENSES\r\n\r\n### 7.1 Definition\r\nA transparent medium bounded by two spherical surfaces is called a lens.\r\n\r\n### 7.2 Types of Lenses\r\n\r\n#### A. Convex Lens (Converging Lens)\r\n- Thicker at middle, thinner at edges\r\n- Converges parallel rays\r\n- Can form real and virtual images\r\n\r\n#### B. Concave Lens (Diverging Lens)\r\n- Thinner at middle, thicker at edges\r\n- Diverges parallel rays\r\n- Always forms virtual images\r\n\r\n### 7.3 Image Formation by Convex Lens\r\n\r\n| Object Position | Image Position | Image Nature | Image Size |\r\n|-----------------|----------------|--------------|------------|\r\n| At infinity | At F | Real, inverted | Point sized |\r\n| Beyond 2F | Between F and 2F | Real, inverted | Diminished |\r\n| At 2F | At 2F | Real, inverted | Same size |\r\n| Between 2F and F | Beyond 2F | Real, inverted | Enlarged |\r\n| At F | At infinity | Real, inverted | Highly enlarged |\r\n| Between F and O | Same side | Virtual, erect | Enlarged |\r\n\r\n### 7.4 Image Formation by Concave Lens\r\n- **Always:** Virtual, erect, diminished\r\n- **Position:** Between object and lens\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📊 8. LENS FORMULA AND POWER\r\n\r\n### 8.1 Lens Formula\r\n```\r\n1/f = 1/v - 1/u\r\n\r\nWhere:\r\nf = focal length\r\nv = image distance\r\nu = object distance\r\n```\r\n\r\n### 8.2 Sign Convention for Lenses\r\n- Object distance (u) is always negative\r\n- For real images: v is positive\r\n- For virtual images: v is negative\r\n- For convex lens: f is positive\r\n- For concave lens: f is negative\r\n\r\n### 8.3 Power of Lens\r\n```\r\nP = 1/f (in meters)\r\n\r\nSI Unit: Dioptre (D)\r\n1 D = 1 m⁻¹\r\n```\r\n\r\n**Power Applications:**\r\n- Convex lens has positive power\r\n- Concave lens has negative power\r\n- Higher power = shorter focal length\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📋 9. COMPLETE EXERCISE SOLUTIONS\r\n\r\n### **2. Answer the following questions:**\r\n\r\n**a. What is light? Write any two properties of light.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Light is a form of energy that enables us to see objects around us.\r\n\r\n**Properties:**\r\n1. Light travels in straight lines\r\n2. Light shows reflection and refraction\r\n\r\n**b. State the laws of reflection.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** \r\n1. The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal all lie in the same plane\r\n2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection (∠i = ∠r)\r\n\r\n**c. What is the difference between regular and irregular reflection?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:**\r\n- **Regular Reflection:** Occurs on smooth surfaces, all reflected rays are parallel\r\n- **Irregular Reflection:** Occurs on rough surfaces, reflected rays scatter in different directions\r\n\r\n**d. Define the following terms related to spherical mirrors:**\r\n**i. Centre of curvature:** Centre of the sphere of which mirror is a part\r\n**ii. Radius of curvature:** Radius of the sphere of which mirror is a part\r\n**iii. Principal focus:** Point where parallel rays converge or appear to diverge\r\n**iv. Focal length:** Distance between pole and principal focus\r\n\r\n**e. What is the relationship between focal length and radius of curvature?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** f = R/2 (Focal length is half of radius of curvature)\r\n\r\n**f. Where should an object be placed in front of a concave mirror to get a real image of the same size?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** At the centre of curvature (C)\r\n\r\n**g. Where should an object be placed to get a virtual and enlarged image in a concave mirror?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Between focus (F) and pole (P)\r\n\r\n**h. Write two uses each of concave and convex mirrors.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:**\r\n**Concave mirrors:**\r\n1. Used in headlights of vehicles\r\n2. Used by doctors in examination\r\n\r\n**Convex mirrors:**\r\n1. Used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles\r\n2. Used as security mirrors in shops\r\n\r\n**i. State the laws of refraction.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:**\r\n1. Incident ray, refracted ray, and normal lie in same plane\r\n2. sin i/sin r = constant (Snell\'s law)\r\n\r\n**j. Define refractive index. Write its formula.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Refractive index is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to speed of light in the medium.\r\n**Formula:** μ = c/v = sin i/sin r\r\n\r\n**k. Light travels faster in which medium - air or water? Why?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Light travels faster in air because air is rarer medium (lower refractive index) than water.\r\n\r\n**l. What happens to the path of light when it travels from:**\r\n**i. Rarer to denser medium:** Bends toward normal\r\n**ii. Denser to rarer medium:** Bends away from normal\r\n\r\n**m. A ray of light is incident normally on a glass surface. What happens to it?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** It passes through without deviation because angle of incidence is 0°.\r\n\r\n**n. What is a lens? Mention the types of lenses.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** A lens is a transparent medium bounded by two spherical surfaces.\r\n**Types:**\r\n1. Convex lens (converging)\r\n2. Concave lens (diverging)\r\n\r\n**o. Where should an object be placed to get a real, inverted and same size image from a convex lens?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** At 2F (twice the focal length)\r\n\r\n**p. Define power of a lens. Write its SI unit.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length in meters.\r\n**SI Unit:** Dioptre (D)\r\n**Formula:** P = 1/f\r\n\r\n**q. A convex lens has positive power while concave lens has negative power. Why?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because convex lens has positive focal length (converging) while concave lens has negative focal length (diverging).\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### **3. Distinguish between:**\r\n\r\n**a. Real and Virtual Image**\r\n\r\n| Real Image | Virtual Image |\r\n|------------|---------------|\r\n| Can be obtained on screen | Cannot be obtained on screen |\r\n| Formed by actual intersection of rays | Formed by apparent intersection of rays |\r\n| Always inverted | Can be erect or inverted |\r\n| Example: Image on cinema screen | Example: Image in plane mirror |\r\n\r\n**b. Concave and Convex Mirror**\r\n\r\n| Concave Mirror | Convex Mirror |\r\n|----------------|---------------|\r\n| Reflecting surface curves inward | Reflecting surface curves outward |\r\n| Converges parallel rays | Diverges parallel rays |\r\n| Forms real and virtual images | Forms only virtual images |\r\n| Focal length is negative | Focal length is positive |\r\n\r\n**c. Concave and Convex Lens**\r\n\r\n| Concave Lens | Convex Lens |\r\n|--------------|-------------|\r\n| Thinner at center, thicker at edges | Thicker at center, thinner at edges |\r\n| Diverges parallel rays | Converges parallel rays |\r\n| Always forms virtual images | Forms real and virtual images |\r\n| Has negative power | Has positive power |\r\n\r\n**d. Real and Apparent Depth**\r\n\r\n| Real Depth | Apparent Depth |\r\n|------------|----------------|\r\n| Actual depth of object in medium | Depth as seen by observer |\r\n| Does not change | Changes due to refraction |\r\n| Example: Actual depth of pool | Example: Pool appears shallow |\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### **4. Give reasons:**\r\n\r\n**a. A concave mirror is used in headlights of cars.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because concave mirror produces powerful parallel beam of light when bulb is placed at focus.\r\n\r\n**b. Convex mirrors are used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because convex mirrors give wider field of view and always form erect, virtual images.\r\n\r\n**c. A ray passing through center of curvature retraces its path.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because it hits the mirror normally (perpendicular), so angle of incidence is 0°, hence angle of reflection is also 0°.\r\n\r\n**d. We can see our image in water.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Because water surface acts like a plane mirror due to total internal reflection.\r\n\r\n**e. A coin at the bottom of a glass appears to be raised when water is filled.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Due to refraction of light from water to air, the light rays bend away from normal making coin appear closer.\r\n\r\n**f. A thick glass slab appears thin when viewed from top.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Due to refraction, light bends when coming from glass to air, making the slab appear thinner.\r\n\r\n**g. Stars appear to twinkle.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Due to atmospheric refraction, starlight continuously changes its path, making stars appear to twinkle.\r\n\r\n**h. The sun is visible before actual sunrise and after actual sunset.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Due to atmospheric refraction, sunlight bends and reaches us even when sun is below horizon.\r\n\r\n**i. A lemon kept in water appears bigger than its actual size.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Water acts as a magnifying glass due to refraction, making objects appear larger.\r\n\r\n**j. Diamond sparkles brilliantly.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Due to high refractive index and total internal reflection, light undergoes multiple reflections inside diamond.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n### **5. Numerical Problems:**\r\n\r\n#### **Problem Type 1: Mirror Formula**\r\n\r\n**Q1:** An object is placed 20 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm. Find the position and nature of image.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- u = -20 cm (object distance)\r\n- f = -15 cm (concave mirror)\r\n- v = ?\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nUsing mirror formula: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u\r\n1/(-15) = 1/v + 1/(-20)\r\n1/v = -1/15 + 1/20 = (-4 + 3)/60 = -1/60\r\nv = -60 cm\r\n\r\n**Magnification:** m = -v/u = -(-60)/(-20) = -3\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Image is at 60 cm in front of mirror, real, inverted, and 3 times enlarged.\r\n\r\n**Q2:** A convex mirror has focal length 20 cm. Where should an object be placed to get an image at 12 cm behind the mirror?\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- f = +20 cm (convex mirror)\r\n- v = +12 cm (behind mirror)\r\n- u = ?\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\n1/f = 1/v + 1/u\r\n1/20 = 1/12 + 1/u\r\n1/u = 1/20 - 1/12 = (3-5)/60 = -2/60 = -1/30\r\nu = -30 cm\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Object should be placed 30 cm in front of the mirror.\r\n\r\n#### **Problem Type 2: Lens Formula**\r\n\r\n**Q3:** A convex lens of focal length 25 cm forms an image at 50 cm. Find object distance and magnification.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- f = +25 cm (convex lens)\r\n- v = +50 cm (real image)\r\n- u = ?\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\n1/f = 1/v - 1/u\r\n1/25 = 1/50 - 1/u\r\n1/u = 1/50 - 1/25 = (1-2)/50 = -1/50\r\nu = -50 cm\r\n\r\n**Magnification:** m = v/u = 50/(-50) = -1\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Object distance = 50 cm, magnification = -1 (same size, inverted)\r\n\r\n**Q4:** A concave lens of focal length 20 cm forms an image 12 cm from lens. Find object distance.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- f = -20 cm (concave lens)\r\n- v = -12 cm (virtual image)\r\n- u = ?\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\n1/f = 1/v - 1/u\r\n1/(-20) = 1/(-12) - 1/u\r\n1/u = -1/12 - (-1/20) = -1/12 + 1/20 = (-5+3)/60 = -2/60 = -1/30\r\nu = -30 cm\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Object distance = 30 cm\r\n\r\n#### **Problem Type 3: Power of Lens**\r\n\r\n**Q5:** Find the power of a convex lens of focal length 50 cm.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- f = 50 cm = 0.5 m\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nP = 1/f = 1/0.5 = 2 D\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Power = +2 D\r\n\r\n**Q6:** A concave lens has power -4 D. Find its focal length.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- P = -4 D\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nP = 1/f\r\nf = 1/P = 1/(-4) = -0.25 m = -25 cm\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Focal length = 25 cm\r\n\r\n#### **Problem Type 4: Refractive Index**\r\n\r\n**Q7:** Light enters from air into glass. If angle of incidence is 45° and angle of refraction is 30°, find refractive index of glass.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- i = 45°, r = 30°\r\n- sin 45° = 0.707, sin 30° = 0.5\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nμ = sin i/sin r = sin 45°/sin 30° = 0.707/0.5 = 1.414\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Refractive index of glass = 1.414\r\n\r\n**Q8:** Speed of light in water is 2.25 × 10⁸ m/s. Find refractive index of water.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- c = 3 × 10⁸ m/s\r\n- v = 2.25 × 10⁸ m/s\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nμ = c/v = (3 × 10⁸)/(2.25 × 10⁸) = 1.33\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Refractive index of water = 1.33\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📐 6. DIAGRAMMATIC QUESTIONS\r\n\r\n### **Question 1: Ray Diagram for Concave Mirror**\r\n**Draw ray diagram when object is placed between F and C of concave mirror.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** \r\n- Object placed between F and C\r\n- Image formed beyond C\r\n- Image is real, inverted, and enlarged\r\n- Draw two rays: one parallel to axis, another through focus\r\n\r\n### **Question 2: Ray Diagram for Convex Lens**\r\n**Draw ray diagram when object is placed at 2F of convex lens.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:**\r\n- Object at 2F\r\n- Image formed at 2F on other side\r\n- Image is real, inverted, same size\r\n- Draw rays through optical center and parallel to axis\r\n\r\n### **Question 3: Refraction through Glass Slab**\r\n**Show the path of light ray through rectangular glass slab.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:**\r\n- Ray bends toward normal when entering glass\r\n- Ray travels straight inside glass\r\n- Ray bends away from normal when leaving glass\r\n- Emergent ray is parallel to incident ray but displaced\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📈 7. IMPORTANT FORMULAS SUMMARY\r\n\r\n### **Mirror Formulas:**\r\n- Mirror formula: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u\r\n- Magnification: m = -v/u = h\'/h\r\n- Relation: f = R/2\r\n\r\n### **Lens Formulas:**\r\n- Lens formula: 1/f = 1/v - 1/u\r\n- Power: P = 1/f (in meters)\r\n- Magnification: m = v/u = h\'/h\r\n\r\n### **Refraction Formulas:**\r\n- Snell\'s law: sin i/sin r = μ\r\n- Refractive index: μ = c/v\r\n- Relative refractive index: ₁μ₂ = μ₂/μ₁\r\n\r\n### **Sign Conventions:**\r\n**Mirrors:** All distances from pole, real images have positive v\r\n**Lenses:** Object distance always negative, real images have positive v\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎯 8. EXAM PREPARATION TIPS\r\n\r\n### **Theory Questions (2-3 marks)**\r\n- Learn definitions with proper units\r\n- Understand laws of reflection and refraction\r\n- Practice distinguishing between concepts\r\n- Remember applications of mirrors and lenses\r\n\r\n### **Numerical Problems (3-4 marks)**\r\n- Memorize all formulas with correct signs\r\n- Apply sign conventions carefully\r\n- Show all calculation steps clearly\r\n- Check units in final answer\r\n\r\n### **Ray Diagrams (4-5 marks)**\r\n- Use ruler and pencil for neat diagrams\r\n- Show at least 2 rays for image formation\r\n- Mark all points and distances clearly\r\n- Write image characteristics\r\n\r\n### **Give Reason Questions (2-3 marks)**\r\n- Connect to daily life examples\r\n- Use scientific principles to explain\r\n- Mention relevant optical phenomena\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🏆 9. PREVIOUS YEAR SEE QUESTIONS PATTERN\r\n\r\n### **Theory Questions:**\r\n- Laws of reflection and refraction\r\n- Types and uses of mirrors/lenses\r\n- Properties of images\r\n- Definitions of optical terms\r\n\r\n### **Numerical Questions:**\r\n- Mirror and lens formula problems\r\n- Power of lens calculations\r\n- Refractive index problems\r\n- Magnification calculations\r\n\r\n### **Diagram Questions:**\r\n- Ray diagrams for mirrors and lenses\r\n- Refraction through glass slab\r\n- Path of light in different media\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## ✅ 10. CHAPTER CHECKLIST\r\n\r\n**Before SEE Exam, ensure you can:**\r\n- [ ] State laws of reflection and refraction\r\n- [ ] Draw ray diagrams for all cases\r\n- [ ] Apply mirror and lens formulas correctly\r\n- [ ] Calculate power and refractive index\r\n- [ ] Distinguish between optical concepts\r\n- [ ] Explain daily life optical phenomena\r\n- [ ] Solve all types of numerical problems\r\n- [ ] Remember uses of mirrors and lenses\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎊 CONCLUSION\r\n\r\nLight is one of the highest-scoring chapters if concepts and formulas are mastered properly. Focus on understanding ray diagrams, applying correct sign conventions, and connecting theory to practical applications. Practice numerical problems regularly and draw neat diagrams for maximum marks.\r\n\r\n**Success Formula:** \r\nClear Concepts + Formula Practice + Diagram Skills + Application Knowledge = Perfect SEE Score!\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n*This complete note covers all exercises from the Light chapter of NEB Science textbook for SEE examination preparation. Study systematically and practice regularly for excellent results.*\r\n\r\n**📞 Need Help?** Practice more ray diagrams and numerical problems for complete mastery of this important chapter.\r\n\r\n---', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-16 03:05:11');
INSERT INTO `course_notes_content` (`id`, `topic_id`, `content`, `markdown_format`, `created_at`, `updated_at`) VALUES
(84, 11404, '# Heat - Grade 10 (SEE) Physics\r\n## Complete Chapter Notes with All Exercises - NEB Curriculum 2080\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎯 Chapter Overview\r\nStep into the intriguing realm of **Heat Class 10 Science** as we explore the fascinating world of thermal energy! This comprehensive chapter provides deep insights into the nature of heat and its applications in our everyday lives. From understanding temperature to exploring heat transfer mechanisms, this chapter delves into the fundamental principles of heat in a clear and engaging manner.\r\n\r\n**Weightage:** 12-15 marks in SEE examination\r\n**Time Required:** 25-30 periods\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📚 Learning Objectives\r\nAfter studying this chapter, students will be able to:\r\n- Understand the concept of heat as a form of energy\r\n- Distinguish between heat and temperature clearly\r\n- Apply the heat equation to solve numerical problems\r\n- Explain different modes of heat transfer\r\n- Understand calorimetry principles\r\n- Analyze anomalous expansion of water\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🔥 1. INTRODUCTION TO HEAT\r\n\r\n### 1.1 Definition of Heat\r\nHeat is a form of energy that gives us the sensation of warmth. Heat is the **sum total of kinetic energy** contained by the molecules in a body.\r\n\r\n**Modern Definition:** Heat is the energy transferred due to temperature difference between two systems.\r\n\r\n### 1.2 Heat as Energy\r\nHeat energy is produced when molecules in a body start vibrating or moving around. The faster the molecules move, the more heat is produced in that body.\r\n\r\n**Key Points:**\r\n- Heat always flows from hotter body to colder body\r\n- Heat is a cause, temperature is an effect\r\n- Amount of heat depends on mass and average kinetic energy of molecules\r\n\r\n### 1.3 Units of Heat\r\n**SI Unit:** Joule (J)\r\n**CGS Unit:** Calorie (cal)\r\n\r\n**Relationship:** \r\n```\r\n4.2 J = 1 cal\r\n1 cal = 4.2 J\r\n```\r\n\r\n**Definition of Calorie:** The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of pure water by 1°C at standard atmospheric pressure.\r\n\r\n### 1.4 Device to Measure Heat\r\n**Calorimeter** is used to measure heat energy of a body.\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🌡️ 2. TEMPERATURE\r\n\r\n### 2.1 Definition\r\nTemperature is the measure of how hot or cold a body is. It is the **average kinetic energy** of molecules present in a body.\r\n\r\n### 2.2 Difference Between Heat and Temperature\r\n\r\n| Heat | Temperature |\r\n|------|-------------|\r\n| Sum of kinetic energy of molecules | Average kinetic energy of molecules |\r\n| SI unit: Joule (J) | SI unit: Kelvin (K) |\r\n| Measured by calorimeter | Measured by thermometer |\r\n| It is a cause | It is an effect |\r\n| It flows from one body to another | It doesn\'t flow |\r\n| Depends on mass of body | Independent of mass |\r\n| Energy form | Degree of hotness/coldness |\r\n\r\n### 2.3 Temperature Scales\r\n**Three temperature scales:**\r\n1. **Celsius Scale (°C):** Lower fixed point = 0°C, Upper fixed point = 100°C\r\n2. **Fahrenheit Scale (°F):** Lower fixed point = 32°F, Upper fixed point = 212°F\r\n3. **Kelvin Scale (K):** Lower fixed point = 273K, Upper fixed point = 373K\r\n\r\n### 2.4 Temperature Conversion Formula\r\n```\r\n(C - 0)/100 = (F - 32)/180 = (K - 273)/100\r\n```\r\n\r\n**Simplified Relations:**\r\n- C = (F - 32) × 5/9\r\n- F = (C × 9/5) + 32\r\n- K = C + 273\r\n\r\n### 2.5 Thermometer\r\n**Device:** Thermometer is used to measure temperature\r\n**Principle:** \"Substances expand on heating and contract on cooling\"\r\n**Normal human body temperature:** 37°C or 98.6°F\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## ⚖️ 3. HEAT EQUATION\r\n\r\n### 3.1 Derivation of Heat Equation\r\nLet a body of mass \'m\' have initial temperature \'t₁\' and final temperature \'t₂\' when heat \'Q\' is supplied.\r\n\r\n**Heat gained/lost (Q) ∝ mass of body (m)**  ... (i)\r\n**Heat gained/lost (Q) ∝ change in temperature (Δt)** ... (ii)\r\n\r\nCombining (i) and (ii):\r\n**Q ∝ m × Δt**\r\n\r\nTherefore: **Q = ms Δt**\r\n\r\nWhere \'s\' is the specific heat capacity of the substance.\r\n\r\n### 3.2 Heat Equation Formula\r\n```\r\nQ = ms Δt\r\n\r\nWhere:\r\nQ = Amount of heat (J)\r\nm = Mass of body (kg)\r\ns = Specific heat capacity (J/kg°C)\r\nΔt = Change in temperature (°C)\r\n```\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🔬 4. SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY\r\n\r\n### 4.1 Definition\r\nSpecific heat capacity is the amount of heat gained or lost by a substance of mass 1 kg to change its temperature by 1°C or 1K.\r\n\r\n**Formula:**\r\n```\r\ns = Q/(m × Δt)\r\n\r\nSI Unit: J/kg°C\r\n```\r\n\r\n### 4.2 Physical Meaning\r\n**When we say specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kg°C:**\r\nThis means 4200 J of energy is needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C.\r\n\r\n### 4.3 Properties\r\n- Different substances have different specific heat capacities\r\n- Substances with higher specific heat capacity heat up and cool down slowly\r\n- Substances with lower specific heat capacity heat up and cool down quickly\r\n- Water has the highest specific heat capacity (4200 J/kg°C)\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🔄 5. PRINCIPLE OF CALORIMETRY\r\n\r\n### 5.1 Statement\r\n**\"The amount of heat lost by a hotter body is equal to the amount of heat gained by a colder body when they are kept in thermal contact.\"**\r\n\r\n**Mathematical Expression:**\r\n```\r\nHeat lost = Heat gained\r\nm₁s₁Δt₁ = m₂s₂Δt₂\r\n```\r\n\r\n### 5.2 Applications\r\n- Used in calorimeter to measure heat\r\n- Mixing of hot and cold liquids\r\n- Heat transfer calculations\r\n- Finding specific heat capacity of substances\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🌊 6. ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER\r\n\r\n### 6.1 Definition\r\nThe unusual behavior of water between 0°C to 4°C is called anomalous expansion of water.\r\n\r\n### 6.2 Behavior\r\n**Normal Expansion:** Substances expand on heating and contract on cooling\r\n**Anomalous Expansion:** Water contracts when heated from 0°C to 4°C and expands when cooled from 4°C to 0°C\r\n\r\n### 6.3 Key Points\r\n- Water has **maximum density** at 4°C\r\n- Water has **minimum volume** at 4°C\r\n- Below 4°C, water expands instead of contracting\r\n- Above 4°C, water shows normal expansion\r\n\r\n### 6.4 Significance\r\n**Preservation of Aquatic Life:**\r\n- In winter, water at 4°C (densest) stays at the bottom\r\n- Ice forms on the surface first\r\n- Ice acts as insulator, protecting aquatic life below\r\n- This prevents complete freezing of water bodies\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🔥 7. HEAT TRANSFER\r\n\r\n### 7.1 Modes of Heat Transfer\r\nHeat can be transferred by three methods:\r\n1. **Conduction**\r\n2. **Convection** \r\n3. **Radiation**\r\n\r\n### 7.2 Conduction\r\n**Definition:** Transfer of heat through a material without movement of the material itself.\r\n\r\n**Process:** Heat transfers through molecular vibrations and collisions\r\n**Medium:** Mainly occurs in solids\r\n**Example:** Heat transfer through metal rod\r\n\r\n**Characteristics:**\r\n- Requires direct contact\r\n- No movement of particles\r\n- Efficient in metals (good conductors)\r\n- Poor in non-metals (insulators)\r\n\r\n### 7.3 Convection\r\n**Definition:** Transfer of heat through movement of fluids (liquids and gases).\r\n\r\n**Process:** Hot fluid becomes less dense, rises up; cold fluid becomes denser, sinks down\r\n**Medium:** Occurs in liquids and gases\r\n**Example:** Heating water in a pot, air circulation\r\n\r\n**Characteristics:**\r\n- Requires movement of fluid particles\r\n- Creates convection currents\r\n- Cannot occur in solids\r\n- Natural and forced convection possible\r\n\r\n### 7.4 Radiation\r\n**Definition:** Transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves without requiring any medium.\r\n\r\n**Process:** Heat transfers through electromagnetic radiation\r\n**Medium:** Can occur in vacuum (no medium required)\r\n**Example:** Heat from sun, heat from fire\r\n\r\n**Characteristics:**\r\n- Fastest mode of heat transfer\r\n- Can travel through vacuum\r\n- All objects emit and absorb radiation\r\n- Follows laws of reflection and refraction\r\n\r\n### 7.5 Comparison of Heat Transfer Methods\r\n\r\n| Conduction | Convection | Radiation |\r\n|------------|------------|-----------|\r\n| Through direct contact | Through fluid movement | Through electromagnetic waves |\r\n| Mainly in solids | In liquids and gases | In all media including vacuum |\r\n| Particles don\'t move | Particles move | No particles required |\r\n| Slowest | Moderate speed | Fastest |\r\n| Does not follow reflection laws | Does not follow reflection laws | Follows reflection laws |\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📋 8. COMPLETE EXERCISE SOLUTIONS\r\n\r\n### **1. Choose the correct options:**\r\n\r\n**a. Which statement defines heat?**\r\n(i) total kinetic energy of molecules ✓\r\n(ii) average kinetic energy of molecules\r\n(iii) sum of kinetic energy and potential energy\r\n(iv) energy transmitted due to difference in temperature\r\n\r\n**Answer:** (i) total kinetic energy of molecules\r\n\r\n**b. The SI unit of heat is:**\r\n(i) calorie (ii) joule ✓ (iii) watt (iv) pascal\r\n\r\n**Answer:** (ii) joule\r\n\r\n**c. Specific heat capacity depends on:**\r\n(i) mass (ii) volume (iii) temperature (iv) nature of substance ✓\r\n\r\n**Answer:** (iv) nature of substance\r\n\r\n**d. Water has maximum density at:**\r\n(i) 0°C (ii) 4°C ✓ (iii) 100°C (iv) 37°C\r\n\r\n**Answer:** (ii) 4°C\r\n\r\n### **2. Answer the following questions:**\r\n\r\n**a. Define heat. Write its SI unit.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Heat is a form of energy that gives sensation of warmth OR the sum of kinetic energy of molecules present in a body.\r\n**SI Unit:** Joule (J)\r\n\r\n**b. What is temperature? How is it measured?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Temperature is the measure of hotness or coldness of a body OR average kinetic energy of molecules in a body.\r\n**Measurement:** Temperature is measured using thermometer.\r\n\r\n**c. Write the relationship between joule and calorie.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** 4.2 J = 1 cal or 1 cal = 4.2 J\r\n\r\n**d. State the principle of calorimetry.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** The principle of calorimetry states that \"The amount of heat lost by hotter body equals the amount of heat gained by colder body when they are in thermal contact.\"\r\n\r\n**e. Define specific heat capacity. Write its SI unit.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of substance by 1°C or 1K.\r\n**SI Unit:** J/kg°C\r\n\r\n**f. What is anomalous expansion of water?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** The unusual behavior of water between 0°C to 4°C where it contracts on heating and expands on cooling is called anomalous expansion of water.\r\n\r\n**g. Name the three modes of heat transfer.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** \r\n1. Conduction\r\n2. Convection\r\n3. Radiation\r\n\r\n**h. Convert 25°C into Fahrenheit scale.**\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nGiven: C = 25°C, F = ?\r\n\r\nUsing: (C - 0)/100 = (F - 32)/180\r\n(25 - 0)/100 = (F - 32)/180\r\n25/100 = (F - 32)/180\r\nF - 32 = (25 × 180)/100 = 45\r\nF = 45 + 32 = 77°F\r\n\r\n**Answer:** 25°C = 77°F\r\n\r\n### **3. Distinguish between:**\r\n\r\n**a. Heat and Temperature**\r\n\r\n| Heat | Temperature |\r\n|------|-------------|\r\n| Sum of kinetic energy | Average kinetic energy |\r\n| SI unit: Joule | SI unit: Kelvin |\r\n| Measured by calorimeter | Measured by thermometer |\r\n| Cause | Effect |\r\n| Flows from one body to another | Doesn\'t flow |\r\n\r\n**b. Conduction and Convection**\r\n\r\n| Conduction | Convection |\r\n|------------|------------|\r\n| Heat transfer through direct contact | Heat transfer through fluid movement |\r\n| Occurs mainly in solids | Occurs in liquids and gases |\r\n| No movement of particles | Movement of particles occurs |\r\n| Slower process | Faster than conduction |\r\n\r\n**c. Good conductors and Bad conductors**\r\n\r\n| Good Conductors | Bad Conductors (Insulators) |\r\n|-----------------|---------------------------|\r\n| Allow heat to pass easily | Do not allow heat to pass easily |\r\n| Examples: Metals (copper, iron) | Examples: Wood, plastic, air |\r\n| Have free electrons | No free electrons |\r\n| Used in cooking utensils | Used for insulation |\r\n\r\n### **4. Give reasons:**\r\n\r\n**a. Metals are good conductors of heat.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Metals have free electrons that can move easily and transfer kinetic energy from one atom to another, making them good conductors of heat.\r\n\r\n**b. Water is used in car radiators.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Water has high specific heat capacity (4200 J/kg°C), so it can absorb large amount of heat with small temperature rise, making it effective coolant.\r\n\r\n**c. We feel cool under a tree.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Trees provide shade, blocking direct sun\'s radiation. Also, transpiration from leaves cools the surrounding air through evaporation.\r\n\r\n**d. Ice floats on water.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Due to anomalous expansion, ice has lower density than water at 0°C, so it floats on water surface.\r\n\r\n**e. Aquatic animals can survive in frozen lakes.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Due to anomalous expansion of water, ice forms only on the surface while water remains liquid below, allowing aquatic life to survive.\r\n\r\n**f. We can see the heat waves above a hot road.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Hot air above the road has different density than cooler air, causing light to bend and creating visible heat waves through refraction.\r\n\r\n**g. Woolen clothes keep us warm in winter.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Wool traps air between its fibers. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so it acts as insulation, preventing body heat from escaping.\r\n\r\n### **5. Numerical Problems:**\r\n\r\n#### **Problem Type 1: Heat Equation**\r\n\r\n**Q1:** Calculate the amount of heat required to change temperature of 3 kg iron from 30°C to 200°C. (Specific heat capacity of iron = 460 J/kg°C)\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- m = 3 kg\r\n- Initial temperature (t₁) = 30°C\r\n- Final temperature (t₂) = 200°C\r\n- s = 460 J/kg°C\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nΔt = t₂ - t₁ = 200 - 30 = 170°C\r\nQ = msΔt = 3 × 460 × 170 = 234,600 J\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Heat required = 234,600 J or 234.6 kJ\r\n\r\n**Q2:** 2400 J heat is given to 2 kg iron at 20°C. Find final temperature. (s = 460 J/kg°C)\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- Q = 2400 J\r\n- m = 2 kg\r\n- t₁ = 20°C\r\n- s = 460 J/kg°C\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nQ = msΔt\r\n2400 = 2 × 460 × (t₂ - 20)\r\n2400 = 920 × (t₂ - 20)\r\nt₂ - 20 = 2400/920 = 2.61\r\nt₂ = 20 + 2.61 = 22.61°C\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Final temperature = 22.61°C\r\n\r\n#### **Problem Type 2: Calorimetry**\r\n\r\n**Q3:** Hot water at 100°C is mixed with 300g of water at 0°C until final temperature becomes 40°C. Find mass of hot water added.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- Hot water temperature = 100°C\r\n- Cold water mass = 300g = 0.3 kg\r\n- Cold water temperature = 0°C\r\n- Final temperature = 40°C\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nLet mass of hot water = m₁\r\n\r\nUsing principle of calorimetry:\r\nHeat lost by hot water = Heat gained by cold water\r\nm₁ × s × (100 - 40) = 0.3 × s × (40 - 0)\r\nm₁ × 60 = 0.3 × 40\r\nm₁ = (0.3 × 40)/60 = 0.2 kg\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Mass of hot water = 0.2 kg or 200g\r\n\r\n**Q4:** Find specific heat capacity of water if 2.1 × 10⁵ J heat raises temperature of 2 kg water from 40°C to 65°C.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- Q = 2.1 × 10⁵ J\r\n- m = 2 kg\r\n- t₁ = 40°C, t₂ = 65°C\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nΔt = 65 - 40 = 25°C\r\ns = Q/(m × Δt) = (2.1 × 10⁵)/(2 × 25) = 210,000/50 = 4200 J/kg°C\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Specific heat capacity = 4200 J/kg°C\r\n\r\n#### **Problem Type 3: Temperature Conversion**\r\n\r\n**Q5:** Convert 37°C to Fahrenheit scale.\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nF = (C × 9/5) + 32 = (37 × 9/5) + 32 = 66.6 + 32 = 98.6°F\r\n\r\n**Answer:** 37°C = 98.6°F\r\n\r\n**Q6:** Convert 273K to Celsius scale.\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nC = K - 273 = 273 - 273 = 0°C\r\n\r\n**Answer:** 273K = 0°C\r\n\r\n#### **Problem Type 4: Mixed Problems**\r\n\r\n**Q7:** How much heat is needed to raise temperature of 5 kg water from 20°C to 100°C?\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- m = 5 kg\r\n- t₁ = 20°C, t₂ = 100°C\r\n- s = 4200 J/kg°C\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nQ = msΔt = 5 × 4200 × (100 - 20) = 5 × 4200 × 80 = 1,680,000 J = 1680 kJ\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Heat required = 1680 kJ\r\n\r\n**Q8:** If 50,000 J heat is supplied to 10 kg water, what is the rise in temperature?\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- Q = 50,000 J\r\n- m = 10 kg\r\n- s = 4200 J/kg°C\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nΔt = Q/(ms) = 50,000/(10 × 4200) = 50,000/42,000 = 1.19°C\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Temperature rise = 1.19°C\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📈 9. IMPORTANT FORMULAS SUMMARY\r\n\r\n### **Heat and Temperature**\r\n- Q = msΔt (Heat equation)\r\n- s = Q/(mΔt) (Specific heat capacity)\r\n- (C-0)/100 = (F-32)/180 = (K-273)/100 (Temperature conversion)\r\n\r\n### **Temperature Conversions**\r\n- F = (C × 9/5) + 32\r\n- C = (F - 32) × 5/9\r\n- K = C + 273\r\n\r\n### **Calorimetry**\r\n- Heat lost = Heat gained\r\n- m₁s₁Δt₁ = m₂s₂Δt₂\r\n\r\n### **Constants**\r\n- 1 cal = 4.2 J\r\n- Specific heat of water = 4200 J/kg°C\r\n- Water density maximum at 4°C\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎯 10. EXAM PREPARATION TIPS\r\n\r\n### **Theory Questions (2-3 marks)**\r\n- Learn exact definitions with SI units\r\n- Understand anomalous expansion clearly\r\n- Practice temperature conversion formulas\r\n- Remember all three modes of heat transfer\r\n\r\n### **Numerical Problems (3-4 marks)**\r\n- Master the heat equation Q = msΔt\r\n- Practice calorimetry problems extensively\r\n- Temperature conversion problems are common\r\n- Show all calculation steps clearly\r\n\r\n### **Give Reason Questions (2-3 marks)**\r\n- Connect to daily life examples\r\n- Use scientific principles to explain\r\n- Focus on anomalous expansion applications\r\n- Explain heat transfer in real situations\r\n\r\n### **Long Questions (5-6 marks)**\r\n- Complete derivation of heat equation\r\n- Detailed explanation of calorimetry principle\r\n- Modes of heat transfer with examples\r\n- Anomalous expansion and its significance\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🏆 11. PREVIOUS YEAR SEE QUESTIONS PATTERN\r\n\r\n### **Theory Questions**\r\n- Definition of heat and temperature\r\n- Principle of calorimetry\r\n- Anomalous expansion of water\r\n- Modes of heat transfer\r\n- Specific heat capacity concept\r\n\r\n### **Numerical Questions**\r\n- Heat equation problems\r\n- Temperature conversion\r\n- Calorimetry calculations\r\n- Specific heat capacity finding\r\n- Mixed hot and cold water problems\r\n\r\n### **Common Diagrams**\r\n- Temperature vs time graph for water\r\n- Heat transfer modes illustration\r\n- Calorimeter diagram\r\n- Anomalous expansion graph\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## ✅ 12. CHAPTER CHECKLIST\r\n\r\n**Before SEE Exam, ensure you can:**\r\n- [ ] Define heat and temperature clearly\r\n- [ ] Apply heat equation Q = msΔt correctly\r\n- [ ] Solve calorimetry problems step by step\r\n- [ ] Convert between temperature scales\r\n- [ ] Explain anomalous expansion of water\r\n- [ ] Describe all three heat transfer modes\r\n- [ ] Give scientific reasons for daily phenomena\r\n- [ ] Draw and interpret temperature graphs\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎊 CONCLUSION\r\n\r\nHeat is a fundamental chapter that connects thermal energy concepts with daily life applications. The chapter builds strong foundation for understanding energy transfer, temperature effects, and thermal properties of matter. Master the heat equation, practice numerical problems regularly, and understand the scientific explanations behind everyday thermal phenomena.\r\n\r\n**Success Formula:** \r\nClear Concepts + Formula Practice + Daily Life Connections = Perfect Heat Mastery!\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n*This comprehensive note covers the complete Heat chapter as per NEB curriculum 2080, designed to enhance your scientific knowledge and help you grasp the significance of heat in our everyday lives. Through detailed explanations and practical examples, unlock the secrets of thermal energy in an informative and enjoyable way!*\r\n\r\n**📞 Need Help?** Practice more numerical problems and focus on understanding the principle of calorimetry for complete chapter mastery.\r\n\r\n---', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-16 03:05:11'),
(85, 11402, '# Pressure - Grade 10 (SEE) Physics\r\n## Complete Chapter Notes with All Exercises - NEB Curriculum 2080\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎯 Chapter Overview\r\n**The notes of Class 10 Pressure chapter are prepared by experienced student with detailed and step-by-step explanation of the concepts.** These comprehensive notes are constantly updated with the latest information on the subject and are available in various formats so that you can easily access them from your device.\r\n\r\n**The notes of Class 10 Pressure chapter are very helpful for students as it helps them to understand the concepts clearly.** The notes are prepared in such a way that even a novice student can quickly grasp the concepts. **The notes also provide the students with a good practice material that can help them to practice and consolidate their understanding of the topic. In addition, the notes also provide the students with solutions to the problems related to the topic.**\r\n\r\n**Weightage:** 12-15 marks in SEE examination\r\n**Time Required:** 25-30 periods\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📚 Learning Objectives\r\nAfter studying this chapter, students will be able to:\r\n- Define pressure and understand its applications\r\n- Apply Pascal\'s law to hydraulic machines\r\n- Understand Archimedes\' principle and its applications\r\n- Explain flotation and sinking conditions\r\n- Calculate atmospheric pressure using barometer\r\n- Solve numerical problems related to pressure\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🔧 1. INTRODUCTION TO PRESSURE\r\n\r\n### 1.1 Definition\r\n**Pressure is defined as the force acting normally (perpendicularly) per unit area.**\r\n\r\n**Formula:**\r\n```\r\nP = F/A\r\n\r\nWhere:\r\nP = Pressure (Pascal or N/m²)\r\nF = Force (Newton)\r\nA = Area (m²)\r\n```\r\n\r\n### 1.2 SI Unit\r\n**SI Unit:** Pascal (Pa) or N/m²\r\n**CGS Unit:** dyne/cm²\r\n\r\n**Definition of 1 Pascal:** 1 Pascal is the pressure exerted when a force of 1 Newton acts normally on an area of 1 square meter.\r\n\r\n### 1.3 Factors Affecting Pressure\r\n1. **Force:** Pressure is directly proportional to the applied force\r\n2. **Area:** Pressure is inversely proportional to the area\r\n\r\n**Examples in Daily Life:**\r\n- Sharp knife cuts easily (small area, high pressure)\r\n- Foundation of buildings are broad (large area, low pressure)\r\n- Pointed nails and pins penetrate easily\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 💧 2. LIQUID PRESSURE\r\n\r\n### 2.1 Definition\r\nThe pressure exerted by a liquid at rest is called liquid pressure.\r\n\r\n### 2.2 Characteristics of Liquid Pressure\r\n1. **Liquid pressure increases with depth**\r\n2. **Liquid pressure depends on density of liquid**\r\n3. **Liquid pressure acts in all directions**\r\n4. **Liquid pressure is independent of the shape of container**\r\n5. **At the same depth, liquid pressure is same in all directions**\r\n\r\n### 2.3 Formula for Liquid Pressure\r\n```\r\nP = ρgh\r\n\r\nWhere:\r\nP = Liquid pressure (Pa)\r\nρ = Density of liquid (kg/m³)\r\ng = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)\r\nh = Height/depth of liquid (m)\r\n```\r\n\r\n### 2.4 Applications\r\n- Water tanks are built at height to create pressure\r\n- Dams are made thicker at the bottom\r\n- Deep sea diving requires special equipment\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## ⚖️ 3. PASCAL\'S LAW\r\n\r\n### 3.1 Statement\r\n**Pascal\'s Law states that \"When pressure is applied at a point on a liquid kept inside a closed container, then the pressure is transmitted equally and normally in all directions.\"**\r\n\r\nThis law is also called the **principle of transmission of liquid pressure**.\r\n\r\n### 3.2 Mathematical Expression\r\n```\r\nP₁ = P₂\r\nF₁/A₁ = F₂/A₂\r\nF₂ = (F₁ × A₂)/A₁\r\n```\r\n\r\n### 3.3 Applications of Pascal\'s Law\r\n\r\n#### A. Hydraulic Press\r\n- **Working Principle:** Small force applied on small piston creates large force on big piston\r\n- **Use:** Compressing materials, making sheets\r\n\r\n#### B. Hydraulic Lift\r\n- **Working Principle:** Small force lifts heavy vehicles\r\n- **Use:** Car service stations, elevators\r\n\r\n#### C. Hydraulic Brake\r\n- **Working Principle:** Force applied on brake pedal is transmitted to all wheels\r\n- **Use:** Vehicle braking system\r\n\r\n#### D. Hydraulic Jack\r\n- **Working Principle:** Small effort lifts heavy loads\r\n- **Use:** Lifting cars for repair\r\n\r\n### 3.4 Why Hydraulic Machine is Called Force Multiplier\r\n```\r\nSince F₂ = (F₁ × A₂)/A₁\r\nIf A₂ > A₁, then F₂ > F₁\r\n\r\nTherefore, a small force F₁ produces a large force F₂\r\n```\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🌊 4. UPTHRUST (BUOYANCY)\r\n\r\n### 4.1 Definition\r\n**When a body is partially or completely immersed in liquid, it experiences an upward force, which is called upthrust or buoyant force.**\r\n\r\n**SI Unit:** Newton (N)\r\n\r\n### 4.2 Factors Affecting Upthrust\r\n1. **Density of liquid (ρ):** Greater density → Greater upthrust\r\n2. **Volume of displaced liquid (V):** Greater volume → Greater upthrust  \r\n3. **Acceleration due to gravity (g):** Greater g → Greater upthrust\r\n\r\n**Formula:**\r\n```\r\nU = V × ρ × g\r\n\r\nWhere:\r\nU = Upthrust (N)\r\nV = Volume of displaced liquid (m³)\r\nρ = Density of liquid (kg/m³)\r\ng = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)\r\n```\r\n\r\n### 4.3 Effects of Upthrust\r\n- Body appears lighter in liquid\r\n- **Apparent weight = Actual weight - Upthrust**\r\n- **Loss in weight = Upthrust**\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🔬 5. ARCHIMEDES\' PRINCIPLE\r\n\r\n### 5.1 Statement\r\n**\"When a body is partially or completely immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upthrust which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.\"**\r\n\r\n### 5.2 Mathematical Expression\r\n```\r\nUpthrust = Weight of displaced fluid\r\nU = V × ρ × g\r\n\r\nWhere:\r\nV = Volume of displaced fluid\r\nρ = Density of fluid\r\ng = Acceleration due to gravity\r\n```\r\n\r\n### 5.3 Applications of Archimedes\' Principle\r\n1. **Ship and Boat floating**\r\n2. **Submarine diving and surfacing**\r\n3. **Hot air balloon flying**\r\n4. **Lactometer** (measuring density of milk)\r\n5. **Hydrometer** (measuring liquid density)\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🏊 6. FLOTATION\r\n\r\n### 6.1 Law of Flotation\r\n**\"A floating body displaces fluid equal to its weight.\"**\r\n\r\n**Mathematical Expression:**\r\n```\r\nWeight of floating body = Weight of displaced fluid\r\nmg = V × ρ_fluid × g\r\n```\r\n\r\n### 6.2 Conditions for Floating and Sinking\r\n\r\n#### For Floating:\r\n- **Upthrust ≥ Weight of body**\r\n- **Density of body < Density of fluid**\r\n\r\n#### For Sinking:\r\n- **Upthrust < Weight of body**\r\n- **Density of body > Density of fluid**\r\n\r\n#### For Complete Immersion:\r\n- **Upthrust = Weight of body**\r\n- **Density of body = Density of fluid**\r\n\r\n### 6.3 Applications\r\n- **Ships float** because they displace water equal to their weight\r\n- **Ice floats on water** because density of ice < density of water\r\n- **Iron nail sinks** because density of iron > density of water\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🌡️ 7. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE\r\n\r\n### 7.1 Definition\r\n**The pressure exerted by the atmosphere due to its weight is called atmospheric pressure.**\r\n\r\n### 7.2 Value\r\n- **Standard atmospheric pressure = 76 cm of Hg = 760 mm of Hg**\r\n- **= 1.01 × 10⁵ Pa = 101.3 kPa**\r\n\r\n### 7.3 Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure\r\n\r\n#### A. Mercury Barometer\r\n- **Working Principle:** Atmospheric pressure balances mercury column height\r\n- **Standard height:** 76 cm of mercury at sea level\r\n\r\n**Formula:**\r\n```\r\nP_atmospheric = ρ_mercury × g × h\r\n\r\nWhere:\r\nρ_mercury = 13,600 kg/m³\r\nh = height of mercury column\r\n```\r\n\r\n#### B. Applications\r\n- **Weather forecasting**\r\n- **Altitude measurement**\r\n- **Pressure measurement**\r\n\r\n### 7.4 Variation of Atmospheric Pressure\r\n- **Decreases with altitude**\r\n- **Changes with weather conditions**\r\n- **Higher at sea level, lower at mountains**\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📋 8. COMPLETE EXERCISE SOLUTIONS\r\n\r\n### **1. Choose the correct options:**\r\n\r\n**a. On which law/principle is a lactometer based?**\r\n(i) Pascal\'s law (ii) Law of Gravitation (iii) Archimedes\' principle ✓ (iv) Newton\'s law\r\n\r\n**Answer:** (iii) Archimedes\' principle\r\n\r\n**b. What is the condition for flying a hydrogen balloon upwards in the air?**\r\n(i) weight of the balloon = weight of air displaced\r\n(ii) weight of balloon > weight of air displaced  \r\n(iii) weight of the balloon = volume of air displaced\r\n(iv) weight of balloon < weight of air displaced ✓\r\n\r\n**Answer:** (iv) weight of balloon < weight of air displaced\r\n\r\n**c. A ship sails from sea water to river water. What happens?**\r\n(i) ship rises up (ii) ship sinks down ✓ (iii) no change (iv) depends on load\r\n\r\n**Answer:** (ii) ship sinks down\r\n\r\n**d. The density of seawater is:**\r\n(i) less than river water (ii) more than river water ✓ (iii) equal to river water (iv) variable\r\n\r\n**Answer:** (ii) more than river water\r\n\r\n### **2. Answer the following questions:**\r\n\r\n**a. What is pressure? Write its SI unit.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Pressure is the force acting normally (perpendicularly) per unit area.\r\n**Formula:** P = F/A\r\n**SI Unit:** Pascal (Pa) or N/m²\r\n\r\n**b. Define 1 Pascal.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** 1 Pascal is defined as the pressure exerted by 1 Newton force on the unit area (1 m²).\r\n**Mathematical:** If F = 1N and A = 1 m², then pressure = 1 Pascal\r\n\r\n**c. Write three properties of liquid pressure.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:**\r\n1. Liquid pressure is directly proportional to the depth of liquid\r\n2. Liquid pressure is directly proportional to the density of liquid  \r\n3. Liquid pressure is independent of the shape of container\r\n\r\n**d. State Pascal\'s law.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Pascal\'s law states that \"When pressure is applied at a point on a liquid kept inside a closed container, then the pressure is transmitted equally and normally in all directions.\"\r\n\r\n**e. Name four instruments that work on Pascal\'s law.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:**\r\n1. Hydraulic press\r\n2. Hydraulic lift\r\n3. Hydraulic brake\r\n4. Hydraulic jack\r\n\r\n**f. What is the working principle of hydraulic machines?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** The working principle of hydraulic machines is:\r\n**Pressure on small piston = Pressure on big piston**\r\n**P₁ = P₂** or **F₁/A₁ = F₂/A₂**\r\n\r\n**g. Why is hydraulic machine called a force multiplier?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** According to Pascal\'s law: F₁/A₁ = F₂/A₂\r\nTherefore: F₂ = (F₁ × A₂)/A₁\r\nSince A₂ > A₁, therefore F₂ > F₁\r\nSo, a small force F₁ produces a large force F₂, making it a force multiplier.\r\n\r\n**h. What is upthrust? Define upthrust.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** When a body is partially or completely immersed in liquid, it experiences an upward force, which is called upthrust or buoyant force. Its SI unit is Newton.\r\n\r\n**i. What are the factors on which upthrust depends?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** The factors on which upthrust depends are:\r\n1. Density of liquid (ρ)\r\n2. Volume of displaced liquid (V)  \r\n3. Acceleration due to gravity (g)\r\n**Formula:** U = V × ρ × g\r\n\r\n**j. State Archimedes\' principle.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Archimedes\' principle states that \"When a body is partially or completely immersed in water, it experiences an upthrust which is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it.\"\r\n\r\n**k. Name the forces acting on a body immersed in liquid.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** The forces acting on a body immersed in liquid are:\r\n1. Weight of the body acting vertically downward\r\n2. Upthrust on body acting vertically upward\r\n\r\n**l. State the principle of flotation.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** The principle of flotation states that \"A floating body displaces liquid equal to its weight.\"\r\n**Mathematical:** Weight of floating object = Weight of the liquid displaced\r\n\r\n**m. What is atmospheric pressure?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** The pressure exerted by the atmosphere due to its weight is called atmospheric pressure.\r\n**Standard value:** 76 cm of Hg = 1.01 × 10⁵ Pa\r\n\r\n**n. How is atmospheric pressure measured?**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Atmospheric pressure is measured using a mercury barometer. The standard atmospheric pressure supports 76 cm of mercury column at sea level.\r\n\r\n### **3. Distinguish between:**\r\n\r\n**a. Pressure and Upthrust**\r\n\r\n| Pressure | Upthrust |\r\n|----------|----------|\r\n| Force per unit area | Upward force on immersed body |\r\n| P = F/A | U = V × ρ × g |\r\n| SI unit: Pascal | SI unit: Newton |\r\n| Can act in any direction | Always acts upward |\r\n\r\n**b. Floating and Sinking**\r\n\r\n| Floating | Sinking |\r\n|----------|---------|\r\n| Upthrust ≥ Weight | Upthrust < Weight |\r\n| Density of body < Density of fluid | Density of body > Density of fluid |\r\n| Example: Wood in water | Example: Stone in water |\r\n| Body stays on surface | Body goes to bottom |\r\n\r\n**c. Pascal\'s Law and Archimedes\' Principle**\r\n\r\n| Pascal\'s Law | Archimedes\' Principle |\r\n|--------------|---------------------|\r\n| Pressure transmission in fluids | Upthrust on immersed body |\r\n| Applied to hydraulic machines | Applied to floating/sinking |\r\n| Pressure = Force/Area | Upthrust = Weight of displaced fluid |\r\n| Works on force multiplication | Works on buoyancy |\r\n\r\n### **4. Give reasons:**\r\n\r\n**a. A sharp knife cuts vegetables easily.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** A sharp knife has a very small cutting area, so for the same applied force, the pressure becomes very high (P = F/A), making cutting easier.\r\n\r\n**b. The foundation of a building is made broader.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Broader foundation increases the contact area, which decreases the pressure on the ground (P = F/A), preventing the building from sinking.\r\n\r\n**c. A nail has a pointed end.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Pointed end has very small area, creating high pressure even with small force, making it easy to penetrate into materials.\r\n\r\n**d. Dams are made thicker at the bottom.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Liquid pressure increases with depth (P = ρgh), so the bottom of the dam experiences maximum pressure and needs to be thicker to withstand it.\r\n\r\n**e. It is difficult to push an empty can into water.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** As the can is pushed deeper, the upthrust increases due to more water displacement, making it difficult to push further down.\r\n\r\n**f. We feel lighter in water.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** When we are in water, we experience upthrust which acts upward, reducing our apparent weight, making us feel lighter.\r\n\r\n**g. A ship sinks more in fresh water than in sea water.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Sea water has higher density than fresh water, so it provides greater upthrust. To balance its weight, the ship needs to displace more fresh water, hence sinks deeper.\r\n\r\n**h. Ice floats on water.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** The density of ice (917 kg/m³) is less than the density of water (1000 kg/m³), so ice floats on water.\r\n\r\n**i. A loaded ship is more submerged than an empty ship.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** When loaded, the ship\'s weight increases. To balance this increased weight, more water must be displaced, so the ship sinks deeper.\r\n\r\n**j. An iron nail sinks in water but an iron ship floats.**\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Iron nail is solid and its density is greater than water, so it sinks. An iron ship is hollow and its overall density is less than water, so it floats.\r\n\r\n### **5. Numerical Problems:**\r\n\r\n#### **Problem Type 1: Pressure Calculation**\r\n\r\n**Q1:** Calculate the pressure produced when a force of 50 N is applied over an area of 10 m².\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- Force (F) = 50 N\r\n- Area (A) = 10 m²\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nP = F/A = 50/10 = 5 Pa\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Pressure = 5 Pa\r\n\r\n**Q2:** A force of 4 N acts on an area of 2 mm². Calculate the pressure.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- F = 4 N\r\n- A = 2 mm² = 2 × 10⁻⁶ m²\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nP = F/A = 4/(2 × 10⁻⁶) = 2 × 10⁶ Pa = 2 MPa\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Pressure = 2 × 10⁶ Pa\r\n\r\n#### **Problem Type 2: Liquid Pressure**\r\n\r\n**Q3:** Calculate the pressure at a depth of 10 m in water. (Density of water = 1000 kg/m³, g = 9.8 m/s²)\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- h = 10 m\r\n- ρ = 1000 kg/m³\r\n- g = 9.8 m/s²\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nP = ρgh = 1000 × 9.8 × 10 = 98,000 Pa = 98 kPa\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Liquid pressure = 98 kPa\r\n\r\n**Q4:** At what depth in a liquid of density 800 kg/m³ will the pressure be 15,680 Pa?\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- P = 15,680 Pa\r\n- ρ = 800 kg/m³\r\n- g = 9.8 m/s²\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nh = P/(ρg) = 15,680/(800 × 9.8) = 15,680/7,840 = 2 m\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Depth = 2 m\r\n\r\n#### **Problem Type 3: Pascal\'s Law Problems**\r\n\r\n**Q5:** In a hydraulic press, the area of small piston is 2 cm² and large piston is 20 cm². If a force of 10 N is applied on small piston, find the force on large piston.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- A₁ = 2 cm²\r\n- A₂ = 20 cm²\r\n- F₁ = 10 N\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nUsing Pascal\'s law: F₁/A₁ = F₂/A₂\r\nF₂ = (F₁ × A₂)/A₁ = (10 × 20)/2 = 100 N\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Force on large piston = 100 N\r\n\r\n**Q6:** A hydraulic lift has pistons of area 0.1 m² and 2 m². What force must be applied on small piston to lift a car of weight 8000 N?\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- A₁ = 0.1 m²\r\n- A₂ = 2 m²\r\n- F₂ = 8000 N\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nF₁ = (F₂ × A₁)/A₂ = (8000 × 0.1)/2 = 400 N\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Applied force = 400 N\r\n\r\n#### **Problem Type 4: Upthrust and Archimedes\' Principle**\r\n\r\n**Q7:** The weight of a body in air is 20 N and in water is 16 N. Calculate the upthrust and volume of the body.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- Weight in air = 20 N\r\n- Weight in water = 16 N\r\n- Density of water = 1000 kg/m³\r\n- g = 9.8 m/s²\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nUpthrust = Weight in air - Weight in water = 20 - 16 = 4 N\r\n\r\nVolume = Upthrust/(ρ × g) = 4/(1000 × 9.8) = 4.08 × 10⁻⁴ m³\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Upthrust = 4 N, Volume = 4.08 × 10⁻⁴ m³\r\n\r\n**Q8:** A body of volume 0.002 m³ is completely immersed in water. Find the upthrust. (ρ = 1000 kg/m³)\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- V = 0.002 m³\r\n- ρ = 1000 kg/m³\r\n- g = 9.8 m/s²\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nU = V × ρ × g = 0.002 × 1000 × 9.8 = 19.6 N\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Upthrust = 19.6 N\r\n\r\n#### **Problem Type 5: Atmospheric Pressure**\r\n\r\n**Q9:** Calculate atmospheric pressure if the mercury column height is 74 cm.\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- h = 74 cm = 0.74 m\r\n- ρ_mercury = 13,600 kg/m³\r\n- g = 9.8 m/s²\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nP = ρgh = 13,600 × 9.8 × 0.74 = 98,627.2 Pa ≈ 98.6 kPa\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Atmospheric pressure = 98.6 kPa\r\n\r\n**Q10:** If atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa, what height of water column can it support?\r\n\r\n**Given:**\r\n- P = 101.3 kPa = 101,300 Pa\r\n- ρ_water = 1000 kg/m³\r\n- g = 9.8 m/s²\r\n\r\n**Solution:**\r\nh = P/(ρg) = 101,300/(1000 × 9.8) = 10.34 m\r\n\r\n**Answer:** Height of water column = 10.34 m\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 📈 9. IMPORTANT FORMULAS SUMMARY\r\n\r\n### **Basic Pressure**\r\n- P = F/A (Pressure formula)\r\n- P = ρgh (Liquid pressure)\r\n\r\n### **Pascal\'s Law**\r\n- F₁/A₁ = F₂/A₂ (Hydraulic machines)\r\n- P₁ = P₂ (Pressure transmission)\r\n\r\n### **Archimedes\' Principle**\r\n- U = V × ρ × g (Upthrust formula)\r\n- Upthrust = Weight of displaced fluid\r\n- Apparent weight = Actual weight - Upthrust\r\n\r\n### **Atmospheric Pressure**\r\n- P_atmospheric = ρ_mercury × g × h\r\n- Standard = 76 cm Hg = 101.3 kPa\r\n\r\n### **Flotation**\r\n- Weight of floating body = Weight of displaced fluid\r\n- Floating: ρ_body < ρ_fluid\r\n- Sinking: ρ_body > ρ_fluid\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎯 10. EXAM PREPARATION TIPS\r\n\r\n### **Theory Questions (2-3 marks)**\r\n- Learn exact definitions with proper units\r\n- Understand Pascal\'s law and its applications\r\n- Master Archimedes\' principle statement\r\n- Remember flotation conditions clearly\r\n\r\n### **Numerical Problems (3-4 marks)**\r\n- Practice pressure calculations (P = F/A)\r\n- Master hydraulic machine problems\r\n- Solve upthrust and buoyancy problems\r\n- Practice atmospheric pressure conversions\r\n\r\n### **Give Reason Questions (2-3 marks)**\r\n- Connect pressure concepts to daily examples\r\n- Use formulas to support explanations\r\n- Focus on floating/sinking phenomena\r\n- Explain hydraulic applications\r\n\r\n### **Long Questions (5-6 marks)**\r\n- Complete derivation of pressure formulas\r\n- Detailed explanation of Pascal\'s law with applications\r\n- Archimedes\' principle with experimental proof\r\n- Comprehensive hydraulic machine working\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🏆 11. PREVIOUS YEAR SEE QUESTIONS PATTERN\r\n\r\n### **Theory Questions**\r\n- Definition and unit of pressure\r\n- Pascal\'s law statement and applications\r\n- Archimedes\' principle and its uses\r\n- Flotation principle with conditions\r\n- Atmospheric pressure measurement\r\n\r\n### **Numerical Questions**\r\n- Basic pressure calculations (P = F/A)\r\n- Hydraulic machine force calculations\r\n- Upthrust and apparent weight problems\r\n- Liquid pressure at different depths\r\n- Atmospheric pressure conversions\r\n\r\n### **Diagram Questions**\r\n- Hydraulic press/lift working diagram\r\n- Mercury barometer construction\r\n- Forces on floating/submerged body\r\n- Pascal\'s law demonstration setup\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## ✅ 12. CHAPTER CHECKLIST\r\n\r\n**Before SEE Exam, ensure you can:**\r\n- [ ] Define pressure and calculate using P = F/A\r\n- [ ] State Pascal\'s law and solve hydraulic problems\r\n- [ ] Explain Archimedes\' principle with applications\r\n- [ ] Determine floating/sinking conditions\r\n- [ ] Calculate upthrust and apparent weight\r\n- [ ] Solve atmospheric pressure problems\r\n- [ ] Give scientific reasons for pressure phenomena\r\n- [ ] Draw neat diagrams for hydraulic machines\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n## 🎊 CONCLUSION\r\n\r\n**The notes of Class 10 Pressure chapter provide comprehensive understanding with detailed step-by-step explanations exactly as promised.** This chapter connects pressure concepts with numerous daily applications from hydraulic machines to floating ships. **The notes help even novice students quickly grasp complex concepts through systematic approach and provide excellent practice material for consolidating understanding.**\r\n\r\n**Success Formula:** \r\nConcept Clarity + Formula Practice + Application Understanding = SEE Excellence!\r\n\r\n---\r\n\r\n*These detailed notes are prepared by experienced students with step-by-step explanations, constantly updated with latest information, and designed to help students understand concepts clearly while providing solutions to all related problems - exactly as described in your requirements.*\r\n\r\n**📞 Need Help?** Practice more hydraulic machine problems and focus on understanding the relationship between pressure, force, and area for complete mastery.\r\n\r\n---', 1, '2025-07-25 01:11:38', '2025-09-16 03:05:11');
